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A TREATISE 



AGRICULTURE 



COMPRISING 

A CONCISE HISTORY OF ITS ORIGIN AND PROGRESS ; THE 

PRESENT CONDITION OF THE ART ABROAD AND 

AT HOME, AND THE THEORY AND 

PRACTICE OF HUSBANDRY. 

^-^»e-"WHTClt -IS ADDED, 
A DISSERTATION ON THE KITCHEN AND FRUIT GARDEN. 

RY JOHN ARMSTRONG. 



WITH NOTES BY J. BUEL. 



NE^ Yj6rK: 



HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS 
1864. 






Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1839, l>y 

Harper & Brothers, 
In tlie Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New York 

Ay tt&aaiec n.oi» 

Ih&t. Omce Llto, 

4|MriJ 1014 



PREFACE, 



After Gen. Armstrong had retired from public to 
private life, and turned his attention particularly to 
rural pursuits, he wrote the following treatise on 
agriculture for the Albany Argus, then conducted 
by the subscriber. To give it to the public in a less 
perishable shape than the columns of a newspaper, 
it was afterward published in book form. The ob- 
ject of General Armstrong was " to contribute his 
aid," to use his language, '* in giving to the study 
and practice of agriculture a new and increased 
impulse throughout the state ; and he supposed 
this could be best done by exhibiting concisely the 
origin and progress of the art, its present condition 
abroad and at home, and, lastly, the theory and 
practice in relation to it which have arisen out of 
the present philosophical attainments in Europe." 

At a subsequent period, at our request, the gen- 
eral wrote two essays, one upon the kitchen, 
and the other upon the fruit garden, which were 
published in the second and third volumes of the 
Memoirs of the Board of Agriculture. As there 
were but few copies of either the treatise or the 
memoirs printed, the circulation was, of course, 



VI PREFACE. 

limited, and the supply inadequate to the demand. 
Now that a taste for agricultural information and 
agricultural improvement has become more gen- 
eral, and that these writings are not to be found 
in the market, the subscriber has been induced to 
unite them in one volume, and to subjoin such 
notes as a lapse of twenty years has, in a meas- 
ure, rendered expedient, on account of the im- 
provements which have, during that time, been 
made in rural economy ; and, in preparing this 
new edition, he is persuaded that he is rendering 
an acceptable service to the agriculturist and to 
the community at large. 

J. BUEL. 
Albany, June, 1839. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. 
Of the Rise and Progress of Agriculture . , . Page 9 

CHAPTER H. 
Of the actual State of Agriculture in Europe ... 13 

CHAPTER nr. 

Theory of Vegetation . 33 

CHAPTER IV. 

Of the Analysis of Soils, and the agricultural relations between 
Soils and Plants 46 

CHAPTER V. 

Of practical Agriculture and its necessary Implements . 52 

CHAPTER VI. 
Of Manures ; their management and application . . 58 

CHAPTER Vir.» 
Of Tillage, and the Principles on which it is founded . 67 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Of a Rotation of Crops, and the Principles on which it is found- 
ed 72 

CHAPTER IX. 

Of the Plants recommendecl for a course of Crops in the prece- 
ding chapter, and their culture 77 

CHAPTER X. 

Of other Plants useful in a Rotation of Crops, and adapted to our 
Climate 105 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

\ 

CHAPTER XL 
Of Meadows Page 113 

CHAPTER Xll. 
Of Farm Cattle 122 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Of the Dairy 133 

CHAPTER XIV. 
Of Orchards 141 

CHAPTER XV 

Of the Kitchen Garden .150 

CHAPTER XVI. 
Of the Fruit Garden . »17 



A TREATISE 

ON 

A G^R I C U L T U R E 



CHAPTER I. 

OF THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. 

The origin of this art is lost among the fables of 
antiquity, and we have to regret that, in the present 
stale of knowledge, we are even ignorant of the 
time when the plough was invented, and of the 
name and condition of the inventor.* When, there- 
fore, we speak of the beginning of the art, we but al- 
lude to certain appearances which indicate its exist- 
ence, and the employment given by it to the minds, 
as well as to the hands of mankind. Such were 
the artificial canals and lakes of Egypt. Menaced 
at one time by a redundancy of water, and at an- 
other by its scarcity or want, the genius of that 
very extraordinary people could not but employ it- 
self, promptly and strenuously, in remedying these 
evils, and eventually in converting them into bene- 
fits ; and hence it was, that, when other parts of the 
world exhibited little more of agricultural knowl- 
edge than appertains to the state of nature ima- 
gined by philosophers, the Egyptians thoroughly un- 
derstood and skilfully practised irrigation, that most 

* This invention has been attributed to Osiris. See Millot's 
Gen. Hist. 



10 AGRICULTURE : 

scientific and profitable branch of the art.* Like 
their own Nile, their populalion had its overflow, 
which colonized Carthage and Greece,! and carried 
with it the talent and intelligence of the mother 
country. The former of these states, though es- 
sentially commercial, had its plantations; and so 
highly prized were the agricultural works of Mago, 
that, when Carthage was captured, they alone, of 
the many books found in it, were retained and trans- 
lated by the Romans. A similar inference may be 
drawn from the history of Greece ; for assuredly 
that art could not have been either unknown or 
neglected which so long employed the pen and the 
tongue of the great Xenophon.J It must, however, 
be admitted that, of the ancient nations, it is only 
among the Romans that we find real and multiplied 
evidences of the progress of the art ; facts substi- 
tuted for conjectures and inferences, Cato, Varro, 
Columella, Virgil, and Pliny, wrote on the subject, 
and it is from their works we derive the following 
brief exposition of Roman husbandry. 

The plough, the great instrument of agricultural 
labour, was well known and generally used among 
the Romans, and was drawn exclusively by horned 
cattle. Of fossil manures we know that they used 
lime, and probably marl,^ and that those of animal 
and vegetable basis were carefully collected. At- 
tention to this subject made part of the national re- 

* The best practical illustration of this opinion is found in 
the Valley of the Po, where " every rood of earth maintains its 
man." 

t The Egyptians might have sent some colonies into those 
countries ; but the commonly received opinion is, that the Pe- 
lasgi first settled Greece, and that Carthage was founded by a 
company of Phoenicians under Queen Dido. 

t Xenophon wrote several treatises on husbandry, and gave 
public lectures on it at Scillonte, whither a weak and wicked 
government had banished him. 

^ For the first part of this assertion we have the authority of 
Pliny ; for the latter, the practice of their colonies both in Gaul 
and Britain. 



ITS RISE AND PROGRESS. 11 

ligion ; the dunghill had its god, and Stercutus his 
temple and worshippers. Their corn-crops were 
abundant ; besides barley and far* they had three 
species of wheats the robus or red, the siligo or 
white, and the triticum trirnestre^ three months or 
summer wheat; they had, besides, millet, panis, 
zea, and rye, all of which, producing a flour conver 
tible into bread, were known by the common name 
of frumentum, corn or grain. Leguminous crops 
were frequent ; the lupine, in particular, was raised 
in abundance, and, besides being employed as a 
manure,! entered extensively into the subsistence 
of men, cattle, and poultry. Thfi— cultivation of 
garden vegetables was well understood, and employ- 
ed many hands ; and meadows, natural and artifi- 
cial, were brought to great perfection. Lucerne and 
fenu-gree were the basis of the latter; and pease, 
rye, and a mixture of barley, beans and pease, called 
farrago, were occasionally used in the stables as 
green food. Their flocks were abundant, and formed 
their first representative of wealth, as is sufficiently 
indicated by their word pecunia. Vines and olives, 
and their products, wine and oil, had a full share 
of attention and use. The rearing of poultry made 
an important part of domestic economy ; nor were 
apiaries and fishponds forgotten or neglected. 

Such was the husbandry of Rome when Rome 
was mistress of the world ; and it was to this illus- 
trious period that Pliny alluded, when, speaking of 
the ancient fertility of the soil, he remarked, " that 
the earth took pleasure in being cultivated by the 
hands of men crowned with laurels and decorated 
with triumphal honours." 

* Of this last there were three kinds, neither of which is now 
cultivated. 

i The lupinus albus of Linnaeus : " many other vegetables 
are used for this purpose, particularly the 6mn, but they do not 
answer as well as the lupine ; when this is heated in an oven, 
and then buried, it forn\s the most powerful of all manures." — 
T. C. L. Simonde. Tableau de V Agriculture Toscane. 

2 



12 AGRICULTURE : 

If we pause for a moment to glance at the civil 
institutions of this wonderful people, we discover 
how soon and how deeply it entered into their poli- 
cy, not merely to promote, but to dignify agricul- 
ture and its professors.* When Cicero said that 
"nothing in this world was better, more useful, 
more agreeable, more worthy of a free man than 
agriculture,"! he pronounced not only his own opin- 
ion, but the public judgment of his age and nation. 
Were troops to be raised for the defence of the re- 
public, the iribus rusticus— the country or farming 
class— was the privileged nursery of the legion.J 
Did exigencies of state require a general or dictator, 
he was taken from the plough. Were his services 
to be rewarded, this was done, not with ribands or 
gold, but by a donation of land.^ 

With such support from public opinion, it was 
not to be supposed that the laws would be either 
adverse or indifferent to this branch of industry ; we 
accordingly find the utmost security given to the 
labours of the husbandman ;I| no legislative inter- 
position between the seller and buyer; neither 
forced sales nor limitation of prices, and a sacred- 
ness of boundaries never disturbed ;^ fairs and mar- 
kets multiplied and protected against invasion oi 
interruption,** and highways leading to these every- 
where established, and of a character to call forth 
the highest praise and admiration. ff 

* Tanus and Numa were deified for services rendered to ag- 
riculture. 

t Cicero do Officiis, 1. ii. 

X This continued till the time of Marius. 

ij As much as he could plough in a day. 

II To cut or destroy in the night the crop of his neighbour, sub- 
iected the Roman to death. 

^ Terminus was among their gods. 

** Assemblies of the people on days designated for fairs, and 
on subjects other than tho.se of trade, were not lawful. 

•ft The Appian Way yet remains the wonder and reproach of 
modern times. 



STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE. 13 

Nor were these regulations confined to the proper 
territory of Rome ; what of her own policy was 
good, she communicated to her neighbours ; what 
of theirs was better, she adopted and practised her- 
self. Her arts and arms were therefore constant 
companions : wherever her legions marched, her 
knowledge, practices, and implements followed ; 
and it is to these we are to look for the foundation 
of modern agriculture in Italy, France, Spain, &c. 



CHAPTER H. 

OF THE ACTUAL STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE. 

This is very different in different states, and even 
in different parts of the same state : its greater or 
less degree of perfection depending on causes phys- 
ical or political, or both. Where a state, or part 
of a state, from soil^ climate^ manners, or geographi- 
cal position, draws its principal subsistence from the 
fishery or the chase, as in the more northern parts 
of Europe,* agriculture will not succeed ; when a 
' state is from any cause both essentially maritime 
or manufacturing, as in England,! or principally 

* Is not the author somewhat at fault here ? Norway is the 
onljr country in the north of Europe where the business of fish- 
ing is extensively followed, and it is only in the portions of that 
continent, so far north as to be unfitted by climate for agricul- 
ture, that wild animals abound. 

t The agricultural condition of Great Britain, and particularly 
of Scotland and of Prussia, has been greatly changed and im- 
proved within the last 20 years ; and even Prussia has apparently 
commenced in earnest in enlightening her agriculture, by estab- 
lishing schools of scientific and practical instruction. The great 
Prussian school of Moegelier, under the direction of Von Thaer, 



14 AGRICULTURE. 

manufacturing, as in Prussia ;* where public opin- 
ion has degraded manual labor, as in Spain, Portu- 
gal, and the Papal territory ; or where laws villa- 
nize it, as in Russia, Prussia, Poland, Hungary, &c., 
&c., it is in vain to expect pre-eminent agriculture. 
These principles will receive illustration as we go 
along. 

I. In the Campania of Rome, where, in the time 
of Pliny, were counted twenty-three cities, the trav- 
eller is now astonished and depressed at the silence 
and desolation that surround him. Even from Rome 
to Tres^ti [four leagues of road the most frequent- 
ed], we lind only an arid plain, without trees, with- 
out meadows natural or artificial, and without villa- 
ges or other habitation of man ! Yet is this wretch- 
edness not the fault of soil or climate, which, with 
little alteration,! continue to be what they ^vere in 
the days of Augustus. " Man is the only growth that 
dwindles here,''"' and to his deficient or ill-directed in- 
dustry are owing all the calamities of the scene. f 

one of the most enlightened agriculturists of the age, aided by 
the instruction in agriculture which is now given in the normal 
and primary schools of that kingdom, has already produced a 
wonderful improvement in Prussian agriculture. The march of 
improvement in Scotch husbandry, m the present century, has 
probably not been surpassed in any country ; while in England, 
at no time has there been greater or more wisely directed efforts 
for improvement than within the last few years. Instead of 
manufactures depressing, it would seem that they now operate 
as the strongest stimulant to agricultural improvement, by of 
fering a ready home-market for the surplus products of the soil, 
both of raw materials and provisions. This also appears to be 
true with regard to our country. — J. B. 

* Although great attention has been given to manufactures in 
Prussia within the last half century, still it is too much to say 
that she is "principally manufacturing." Agriculture is un 
doubtedly, by far, the most important interest. 

I The climate of Italy is now warmer than it was in the Au- 
gustan age, which Buffon ascribesto the draining of great tracts 
of swampy land in Germany. 

X " Un Romain meme le plus indigent rougiroitde cultiver la 
terra." — Bosc. The poorest Roman would blush to cultivate the 
earth 



STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE. 15 

Instead of devoting themselves to the hardy and 
masculine labours of the field, the successors of Cato 
and of Pliny are employed in fabricating sacred vases, 
hair-powder and pomatums, artificial pearls, fiddle- 
strings, embroidei'ed gloves, and religious relics ! They 
are also great collectors of pictures, statues, and 
medals — " dirty gods and coins" — and find an ample 
reward in the ignorance and credulity of those who 
buy them. • 

II. How different from this picture is that of Tus- 
cany ! where the soil, though less fertile,* is covered 
with grain, with vines, and with cattle ; and where 
a surface of 1200 square leagues subsists a popula- 
tion of 950,000 inhabitants, of which 80,000 are ag- 
riculturists. f It may amuse, if it does not instruct, 
the reader, to offer a few details of a husbandry 
among the most distinguished of the present age. 
The plough of northern Europe, like that of this 
country, has the power of a wedge, and acts hori- 
zontally ; that of Tuscany has the same direction, 
but a very different form. With the outline of a 
shovel, it consists of two inclined planes sloping 
from the centre, and forming a gutter and two ridg- 
es. This instrument is particularly adapted to the 
loose and friable texture of the soil. A second 
plough of the same shape, but of smaller size, fol- 
lows that already described, and, with the aid of the 
hoe and the spade,| throws the earth, already bro- 

* " Two thirds of Tuscany consists of mountains." Vol. viii., 
p. 232, Geographique Mathematique et physique. See also Forsyth's 
remarks, p. 80, where are detailed the principal causes of her 
prosperity. " Leopold," says he, "m selling the crown lands, 
studiously divided large tracts of rich but neglected land into 
iinall properties. His favourite plan of encouragmg agriculture 
consisted, not in boards, societies, and premiums, but in giving the 
labourer a security and interest in the soil, in multiplying small free- 
holds, in extending the livelli or life leases," &c., &c. 

t Tuscany, including the islands belonging to it, is stated to 
have a superficial area of about 8000 square miles, and, by the 
last census, somewhat more than 1,. 300,000 inhabitants. 

X It is among the most important covenants of a Tuscan .ease, 



16 AGRICULTURE. 

ken and pulverized, into four- feet ridges or beds, 
on which the crop is sown. The furrows answer a 
threefold purpose ; they drain the beds of excessive 
moisture, ventilate the growing crops, and supply 
paths for the weeders. 

The rotation of crops employs two periods of dif- 
ferent lengtli ; the one of three, the other of five 
years. In the rotation of three years the ground 
is sown five times, and in that of four years seven 
times, as follows : 

1st year, wheat, and, after wheat, lupines : 
2d do. wheat, and, after wheat, turnips : 
3d do. Indian corn or millet. 
1st year, wheat, and, after wheat, beans : 
2d do. wheat, and, after wheat, lupines : 
3d do. wheat, and, after wheat, lupinella : [an- 
nual clover]. 
4th do. Indian corn or millet. 

In the Syanese Maremna, where the lands want 
neither repose nor manure, the constant alternation 
is hemp and wheat, and the produce of the latter is 
often twenty-four bushels threshed for one sown. 

It will be seen from this course of crops, that the 
principal object of Tuscan agriculture is wheat; of 
which they have two species, the one bald, the other 
bearded ; both larger than the corresponding species 
in other countries of Europe ; convertible into ex- 
cellent bread and pastes, and probably but varieties 
of that Sicilian family which Pliny describes as 
yielding '^ most flour and least bran, and suffering no 
degradation from time.'" It is harvested about the 
middle of June, and, when the grain crop is secured, 
the ploughing for the second or forage crop begins ; 
which, besides lupines, lupinella, and beans, often 
consists of a mixture of lupines, turnips, and flax. 
The lupines ripen first, and are gathered in autumn ; 
that one third of the ground shall be actually worked with a 



STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE. 17 

the turnips are drawn in the winter, and the flax in 
the spring. 

Besides the apphcation of ordinary manures.^ the 
lupine is ploughed down when in flower ; a practice 
that began with the Romans : Columella says, "of 
all leguminous vegetables, the lupine is that which 
most merits attention, because it costs least, employs 
least time, and furnishes an excellent manured The 
culture of this vegetable is diflferent, according to 
the purposes for which it is raised; if for grain, the 
ground has two ploughings and twenty-five pounds 
weight of seed to a square of a hundred toises [about 
640 feet] : if for manure, one ploughing is sufficient. 
Like our buckwheat, its vegetation is quick and its 
growth rapid ; whence the farther advantage of sup- 
pressing, and even of destroying, the weeds that 
would have infested any other crop. In the neigh- 
bourhood of Florence, they are in the practice of 
burning the soil; which they do by digging holes, 
filhng them with fagots, and raising the earth into 
mounds over them. The fagots are then inflamed 
and burned, and with them the incumbent earth, 
which is afterward scattered, so as to give to the 
whole field the same preparation. 

III. " The countries," says Arthur Young, " the 
most rich and flourishing of Europe, in proportion 
to their extent, are probably Piedmont and the Mi- 
lanese. We there meet all the signs of prosperity, 
an active and well-conditioned population, great ex- 
ertions, considerable interior consumption, superb 
roads, many opulent towns, a ready and abundant 
circulation, the interest of money low, the price of 
labour high ; in one word, it is impossible to cite a 
single fact that shows that Manchester, Birming- 
ham, Rouen, and feyons, are in a condition equally 
prosperous as the whole of tliese duchies." Their 
population is stated at '* 1,114,000, and the territory 
at little more than two millions of arpons (acres). 
Wheat, rye, Indian corn, flax, and hemp, the vine 



18 AGRICULTURE. 

and the olive, the caper and the cotton-tree, with 
all kinds of garden fruits and vegetables, are culti- 
vated here : the soil knows no repose, and much of 
it yields annually and uniformty two crops of grain 
or three of grass."* These are the miracles of ir- 
rigation ; not a drop of water is lost. Besides the 
permanent supplies furnished from lakes, ponds, 
rivers, creeks, and springs, even the winter torrent 
and summer shower are everywhere intercepted by 
drains and led to reservoirs, whence they are dis- 
tributed at will to the neighbouring grounds. 

In 1770 an agricultural school was established at 
Milan, consisting of 220 boys, who were instructed 
in theoretical and practical husbandry. This insti- 
tution has escaped the notice of travellers ; and we 
are unable to say whether it has or has not fulfilled 
the intentions of its projectors.! 

IV. Switzerland has 1444 square leagues of sur- 
face,J and presents an assemblage of mountains, 
one rising above another, until the summits are lost 
in masses of snow and ice, which never melt. This 
short description sufficiently indicates the character 
of both the soil and the climate ; yet, unpropitious as 
these are, we find a population of 1242 inhabitants 
to each square league ! " This is, perhaps, the 
country of the world which presents the most hap- 
py effects of an industry always active and per- 
severing. The traveller who climbs her mountains 
is struck with admiration when he beholds vine- 
yards and rich pastures in those places which be- 
fore appeared naked and barren rocks. The traces 

* Geographique Mathematique, «fec., article Italie. 

t Since this treatise was written, we have notice of the estab- 
lisnment of agricultural schools in Prussia, France, Ireland, 
Russia, and in most of the German Stales; and a school, upon 
a very broad and liberal basis, is in contemplation in England. 
—J. B. 

t The superficial area of Switzerland, as its boundaries were 
established by the Congress of Vienna, has been differently es- 
timated from 14,000 to 18,000 square miles. 



STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE. 19 

of the plough are perceived on the border of pre- 
cipices where the most savage animals do not pass 
without danger ; in one word, the inhabitants appear 
to have conquered all obstacles, whether arising 
from soil, position, or climate, and to have drawn 
abundance from a territory condemned by nature to 
perpetual sterility."* 

V. The classical reader will remember that Spain 
was the garden of the Hesperides of the Roman 
writers ; by which was meant the combinations of 
a fine climate, a rich soil, and an active, intelligent* 
agriculture. To this state of things even the em- 
pire of the Goths was not fatal ;f and that of the 
Moors rendered it still more distinguished. In their 
hands the plains of Valentia were cultivated through- 
out, with the utmost care and skill ; and where their 
wheels, reservoirs, and drains of irrigation yet re- 
main, the soil continues to yield the richest and 
most abundant products. In Catalonia, Navarre, 
Galitia, and the Asturias, many species of the an- 
cient agriculture are yet in vigour, because " the 
leases are long, and the landlord cannot capriciously 
violate themy The same causes are followed by the 
same effects in the three districts of Biscaya, Gui- 
poscoa, and Alava. " In running over these, every- 
thing one finds is animated by the presence of lib- 
erty and industry; nothing can be more charming 
than the coasts, nothing more attractive than the 
culture of the valleys. Throughout the 30 leagues 
that separate Bedassos from Vittoria, every quarter 
of an hour, we discover some well-built village .or 
comfortable cottage. "J ''' 

* Geographique Mathematique, article Helvetia. 

t It appears from Varro, De re rustica, and the letters of Cas- 
siodoms, that the Goths introduced into Spain the subterranean 
granaries called sillos, and the art of irrigation. The former are 
now exclusively used in Tuscany ; and Cato's precept, " Prata 
irrigua," &c., shows whence their knowledge of the latter was 
derive(i. 

t Burgoing's Modem Spain, vol. i. 



20 AGRICULTURE. 

How different is the aspect of the other provinces! 
In these not more than two thirds of the earth are 
cultivated; and " it is not uncommon to travel eight 
and ten leagues together without finding a trace of 
human industry. In the district of Badejoz alone 
is a desert twenty-six leagues in length and twelve 
in breadth.* Ten of the fourteen leagues that trav- 
erse the duchy of Medina Sidonia consist alto- 
gether of pasturage. There is nowhere a vestige 
of man ; not an orchard, not a garden, not a ditch, 
not a cottage to be seen ! The great proprietor ap- 
pears to reign, like the lion in the desert, repulsing 
by his roaring all who would approach him. But, 
instead of human colonies, we encounter troops of 
horned cattle and of mares, wandering, self-directed, 
over plains to which the eye can discover no bound- 
ary or barrier, and which brings to one's recollec- 
tion the days when the beasts shared with man the 
empire of the earth. "f 

" Even when the plough is used, it is little more 
than a great knife fastened to a stick, that just 
scratches the surface. The grain is threshed by 
horses or mules driven over it, or by means of a 
plank studded with nails or flint stones, and drawn 
across it. J With even this miserable culture, the 
land in Andalusia yields considerable crops ; yet are 
the inhabitants too lazy or too few to gather them 
together.^ This is done by Galiegos, who are the 

* Borde's Itineraire de I'Espagne, vol. iv., p. 30. 

I Burgoing. Spain has been long renowned for its horses. 
Tlfc Romans, in settling their pedigree and illustrating their 
swiftness, called them " the children of the winds.^' 

t Swinburne's Travels, vol. i. A Spanish peasant, who has 
earned or begged enough for the wants of the day, will refuse to 
earn more, even by running an errand. Striking as this fact is, 
ir. does not so well illustrate Spanish indolence as the following 
anecdote from the same pen : In the great sedition in Madrid, 
which ended in the defeat of the king and the disgrace of his 
minister (the Marquis des Suillas), and in its most fervid mo- 
ments, both parties retired about dinner-time to take their nap 



STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE. 21 

labourers of Spain." We need scarcely remark, 
that in a state of agriculture like this, the peasantry 
cannot be either well fed or well clothed. " The 
mountaineers live principally upon roasted acorns 
and goat's milk, and those of the plain (from Barce- 
lona to Malaga) on bread steeped in oil, and occa- 
sionally seasoned with vinegar."* 

It is wide of our subject to examine the causes 
of the degradation which marks the agriculture of 
Spain. Well-informed writers have ascribed it to 
the expulsion of the Moors and Jews, to the weight 
of taxes and imposts, to the mesta or common right 
of pasturage, to the discovery of America and its 
consequences, to the effect of climate, and the ill- 
judged charity of bishops and convents, but princi- 
pally to the great manorial grants and unequal divis- 
ion of the soil which followed the conquest. " W^e 
often find six, eight, ten, and even fifteen leagues of 
extent belonging to one master. The nobility and 
clergy possess nearly the whole country. One 
third of Spain belongs to the families of Medina 
Celi, D'Alba, De I'lnfantado, D'Aceda, and to the 
archbishops, bishops, and chapters of Toledo, Com- 
postella,Valentia, Seville, and Murcia. A great pro- 
portion of these lands remain untilled and untenant- 
ed, and those which are let in cortijo or farms are 
double or treble the quantity that can be occupied 
in tillage."! 

VI. The agriculture of Portugal has been sub- 
jected to the same evils as that of Spain, to which 
may be superadded her connexion with Great Brit- 
ain, under whose policy she has become a raiser 
oi fruit instead oi grain. 

VII. France is probably the country of Europe 

or miridiana, after which they returned to the combat with new 
vigour and enraged fury. U habits can thus control the passions, 
to what important uses might not a wise legislation t'lrn them? 

* See preceding note. 

t Le Borde's Itineraire de I'Espagne, vol, i. 



22 



AGRICULTURE. 



which most unites the great desiderata of an ex- 
tended and profitable agriculture, fertility of soil, 
mildness of climate, a dense population, an en- 
lightened government, and facility of exportation.* 
Within her ancient hmits, she boasts a surface of 
more than one hundred and fifteen millions of ar- 
pens, and a population of twenty-two millions of 
inhabitants.! The following tables will show, in a 
compressed form, the nature of her soil and the 
uses to which it is put :% 

GEOLOGICAL TABLE. 

Arpens or Acres. 

Alluvial and Other rich soil . . . 26,159,340 

Chalky do 13,268,911 

Gravelly do 3,261,826 

Stony do 18,128,660 

Sandy do 7,553,956 

Stratum of clay, with a light covering of 

sand, called landes .... 21,879,120 

Granitic and other mountains . . . 25,261,946 



AGRICULTURAL TABLE. 



Arable land 

Vineyards 

Woods 

Natural meadows 

Artificial meadows . 

Lakes, marshes, wastes 



63,600,000 
4,764,960 

15,931.850 
5,464 800 
6,332,100 

19,400,049 



Total, .... 115,493,759 

From the average of a number of statistical tables 

* The natural advantages of France as to soil, climate, &c. 
are doubtless great ; and her agriculture, and the condition of 
her rural population, have been much improved since the revo- 
lution ; still, as a whole, her soil is by no means as well culti- 
vated as that of Belgium, Tuscany, England, Scotland, and, 
probably, some parts of Germany. 

t The population of France, by the last enumeration, was 
about 32,000,000. 

X See Geographique, &c., vol. vi., art. France, p. 13, and 
Young's Tour through France. 



STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE. 23 

made by the Abbe D'Expillyt and others, it appears 
that in 1777 the agriculture of France was not only 
sufficient for the subsistence of its inhabitants, but 
produced a surplus for exportation;* ahd though it 
be universally admitted that her condition in this 
respect is not less prosperous noiy than it was then,-\ 
still it cannot be dissembled that her husbandry has 
many defects ; 

1. A supposed resemblance between the earth 
and animals gave rise to fallows : because men and 
horses required repose after labour, it was supposed 
that, after cropping, the earth also required it. Faith- 
ful to this absurd analogy, the French landlord binds 
down his tenant by lease not to crop the soil more 
than three years out oi four ; which, in effect, is to 
consign to barrenness or weeds one fourth of fehe 
whole arable land of France yearly ! 

2. There is not a sufficiently fixed or steady pro- 
portion between arable and pasture land. The pro- 
duction of grain is the great object of culture, often 
with too little regard to the nature of the soil, 
and generally without any to its improvements. 
"Where pasturage is scanty, where natural mead- 
ows are bad, where artificial are rare, and root hus- 
bandry little extended, cattle cannot be either nu- 
merous or well-conditioned ; and as without these 



* The products of agricultural labour were, in these tables, 
stated at 1 14,552,000 L. T. Those of manufacturing labour at 
128,015,000. 

"t The effects of the revolution of 1789 on agriculture are no 
longer doubtful. The suppression of tithes, of the exclusivi 
"privilege, of the chase, of every species o( corvee (labour perform- 
ed by tenants for landlords), of taxes or rents, and of rights of 
commonage, was among these effects ; and if to these we add the 
division of the great landed estates of the nobility and clergy, there 
can no longer be any skepticism on this point. No truth is bet- 
ter established than the advantage of small farms over great, so 
far as the public is concerned. The Roman latifundia (military 
grants) destroyed Roman agriculture. 



24 AGRICULTURE. 

there can be no manure, so without manure there 
can be no abundance."* 

3. The land is generally worked by farmers 
hired for that purpose, or by renters on short leases ;\ 
which in neither case betters the condition of the 
soil ; the one having no interest in improvements, 
and the other too small a one to justify any ex- 
pense in making them. 

4. A good rotation system, adapted to the soil and 
climate, is not absolutely unknown, and may be 
found even in whole districts (as in- French Flan- 
ders), but much too rarely. We have seen wheat 
and fallows alternating for years, and wheat and rye, 
hemp and rye, and many others equally ridiculous. 

5. To the eye, more than one half of France is a 
common, without fences of any kind, excepting gar- 
den or park walls. Can there be order, economy, 
or security under such circumstances? Can the 
police and the gens d''armes be sufficient substitutes 1 

VIII. Holland, though essentially commercial, 
has, from causes rarely occurring, become also 
highly agricultural. To the descendants of Dutch- 
men, the following description of her industry, in 
this respect, cannot but be acceptable. It is from 
the pen of an excellent judge and faithful narrator.J 

* French agriculture has undergone great changes since Her- 
bin wrote. The large estates have been mostly cut up into 
small ones by the events of the revolution, and are now farmed 
by small proprietors : the culture of the sugar-beet, and the al- 
ternation of crops, have succeeded the old system of culture : 
cattle are consequently more numerous and better conditioned ; 
a national central agricultural society, with numerous auxiliary 
societies, has been established ; men of science have applied 
their learning to the improvement of the soil, and the govern- 
ment has been actively engaged in encouraging this great branch 
of national industry, by giving liberal bounties to those who dis- 
tinguish themselves in making improvements. — J. B. 

t Herbin's Statistique general de la France, vol. i.. Introduc- 
tion. 

X M. Yvart, Professor of Agriculture at Elfort. See his In- 
trcductory Address to his Class in 1806. 



STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE. 25 

" Their rotation of crops always begins with the 
culture either of some leguminous plant or profita- 
ble root , and generally with the potato, as the best 
preparative of the ground. Whatever may be the 
grain which follows, whether w^heat, rye, &c., &c., 
it is generally sown with red clover ; and, where it is 
not, the stubble is ploughed in immediately after 
harvest, and a crop of turnips taken, and either con- 
sumed on the ground or housed for the winter. A 
single department (that of Zealand) obtains, by the 
culture of madder alone, an annual profit of six mill- 
ions of florins, nearly three millions of dollars ; 
while that of Brabant boasts its twenty thousand 
beehives ; in a word, this commendable nation, 
upon an extent of surface not exceeding seventeen 
hundred square leagues (the greater part of which 
has been redeemed from the ocean), counts two 
hundred and forty-three thousand horses, seven 
hundred and sixty thousand horn cattle, about a mill- 
ion of sheep, from ten to twelve thousand goats, 
four hundred and eighty-nine thousand hogs, and 
about three millions of poultry of every species. 
Their stock of manure is necessarily great, and is 
both well understood and well managed." 

IX. Physical and moral causes operate against 
the existence of a productive agriculture in Den- 
mark and Sweden; and these are, severity of cli- 
mate, poverty of soil, and vassalage of tenants.* 
Their resources are also alike, and exist principally 
in manufactures and commerce, and in mines, for- 
ests, and fisheries.! The former boasts fine pas- 
turage and cattle in Holstein. 

* To give to despotism the air of freedom, the serfs of the 
crown in Denmark were liberated at the revolution, but the ex 
ample was neither approved nor followed. 

t These remarks as to climate, soil, and productions, are ap- 
plicable to Sweden, but not to Denmark. The climate of the 
latter country, in consequence of the insular situation of a large 
part of it, is by no means as severe as its latitude might seem to 
indicate. The writer of this passed the winter of 1812 at Co 



26 AGRICULTURE. ' 

X. Under the common name of Germany we in- 
clude Prussia, Saxony, Austria, Wurtemburg, and 
Bavaria, and shall say a few words of each calcu- 
lated to give a general idea of their husbandry. It 
was not to be expected that the great Frederic of 
Prussia (so devoted to national glory and strength) 
would disregard the interests of agriculture ; and 
the less so, as in theory he considered it " Les ma- 
melles de Vetat^'' the paps of the state. We accord- 
ingly find him employed in draining marshes of 
great extent,* in filling them with iitdustrious colo- 
nists, and in converting barren sands into fertile 
fields, by placing his capital in the midst of them. 
But, among these good works, he forgot that the 
hands of the labourer, to be efficient, must be free ; he 
found the peasants slaves, and left them such. 

The Saxon peasant, on the other hand, is free, 
and protected by the laws ; he holds his farm on 
lease, which he sells or transmits to his children at 
will : and this is the principal cause of the flourish- 
ing state of Saxon agriculture. In Lusalia, a differ- 
ent legislation produces differei;it effects; but, for 
some years past, the government and great proprie- 
tors have concurred in changing W\e vassalage of the 
peasants into a mild and salutary dependance. Sax- 
ony is remarkable for its grain products, and Lusa- 
tia for its stock ; the latter counts four hundred 
thousand head of sheep of the Merino race. 

Geographers give to Austria and her dependan- 
cies 1065 leagues in circumference. In a surface 
of this extent there is necessarily a great variety, 
as well of climate as of soil; but, in general, both 

penhagen, and did not at any time see sufficient snow on the 
ground to make good sleighing. Much of the soil of Denmark 
is highly productive in wheat, rye, pasturage, &c. She has 
few manufactures, or mines, or forests, and, since her separation 
from Norway, no extensive fisheries. 

* In the Dollart, what was lost by the sea was regained, and 
the marshes on the Netz and the Warth, at Friedberg and in 
Pomerania, were drained, and the country rendered habitable. 



STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE. 27 

are favourable to agriculture. " In the districts of 
the Inn, of Lower Stiria, of Istria, and of Carniola, 
the land is of good quality, well cultivated, and very 
productive. In the last they have two crops in the 
year ; sowing buckwheat on wheat or rye stub- 
ble, and millet on that of hemp and flax. They 
everywhere cultivate Indian corn, and in Stiria (as 
in Virginia) it forms the ordinary bread of the coun- 
try." In Bohemia, Moravia, and Galitia,* the soil is 
uncommonly rich, and, under proper management, 
would be very productive. Austrian Silesia is less 
fitted for the production of grain, but excels in for- 
age and cattle. Hungary, Transylvania, and Croa- 
tia abound in every species of agricultural produce. 
Their flocks and pasturage are not inferior to those 
of the Ukraine ; and wheat, buckwheat, Indian corn, 
millet, rice, hemp, flax, and tobacco, yield immense 
harvests to very small degrees of labour. Yet is 
agriculture far from being m a flourishing condi- 
tion! Writers on political economy ascribe this 
fact principally to two causes. 

1st. The degradation and oppression of the la- 
bouring part of the community ; and, 

2d. The want of convenient commercial outlets 
for the produce of the soil. 

We shall find in Hungary a striking illustration 
of the correctness of this opinion. " The Populus 
Hungaricus''' — Hungarian population — is divided into 
four estates, the magnats, the nobles, and the cler- 
gy, who possess all the lands, and the " misera con- 
tribuens plebs" — the wretched contributing people — 
who, besides tithes, rents, and corvees, pay all the 
taxes. This miserable populace is composed of the 
burghers and the peasantry, of which there are 
three kinds, slaves for life, temporary slaves, and a 
third sort called liberce emigraiionis, who, as their 
name indicates, have locomotive powers and rights 

* Geographiqiie Math, 
8 



28 AGRICULTURE. 

Of the condition of this people since the year 1764 
(and before that period it was much worse), we 
may form an idea from the edict of Maria Theresa, 
called the urbarium, or law of contracts betweer. 
landlord and tenant, by which it is declared that 
corporeal punishment, inflicted by the master for in- 
solent words or conduct, shall not exceed twenty- 
four strokes with a cane for a man, and the same 
number with a switch for a woman. Nor is the 
commercial condition of this people better than the 
civil ; they are not only obliged to take from Aus- 
tria many things which they could obtain in other 
places of a better quality and at a lower price, but 
they are also compelled to carry to Vienna the pro- 
ducts of their own soil and labour, where their sale 
is embarrassed and their value lessened by heavy 
and oppressive taxes. The same remark applies 
to Galitia, whose natural outlet is the Vistula or 
the Nieper ; but of these she is not permitted to 
avail herself, and, like her sister kingdoms, is com- 
pelled to seek the markets furnished by the Dan- 
ube and Trieste. " The consequences are obvious ; 
the tenant works only to satisfy hunger, and the 
landlord is satisfied with little more than ^viciumet 
vestitum,' "* food and clothing. 

The amount of lands annually cultivated in Ba- 
varia is one million one hundred and sixty-five 
thousand acres, which produce about six millions 
of bushels of grain, of which two millions are sur- 
plus. The Palatinate (one of the dependancies of 
Bavaria) is also very productive. The route between 
Heidelberg and D'Armstadt, called the Bergstrass^ 
traverses one of the finest districts of Germany, and, 
perhaps, of Europe ; where are seen extensive vine- 
yards, vast meadows, and fertile fields, producing 
wheat, barley, tobacco, madder, rhubarb, turnips, 
&c., &c. In the year 1799, all the electoral pos- 

*Geog. Math., vol. iv., article Hungary. 



STi»TE OF AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE. 29 

sessions within the circle of Bavaria, contained 
199,000 horses, 160,000 oxen, 465,000 cows, 961,000 
sheep, 320,000 hogs, and 378,000 goats. Yet are the 
Bavarians, compared with the inhabitants of the 
north of Germany, half a century in the rear. The 
people are extremely ignorant and fanatical : like 
the people of Rome and Lisbon, they sacrifice much 
time to processions and fetes, and, like them also, are 
slaves of the vilest appetites. Debauchery is no- 
where more flagrant than in Munich.* 

Wurtemhurg is ranked among the most fertile and 
well-cultivated countries of Germany. The mount- 
ainous parts produce potatoes, oats, hemp, and flax ; 
the less hilly abound in wheat, spelts, rye, buck- 
wheat, Indian corn, and barley ; and in the valleys 
we find tobacco, and madder, and vineyards in which 
the grapes of France, Cyprus, and Persia succeed 
perfectly. Apples, pears, &c., are of common pro- 
duct and of excellent quality.} 

XL It has been justly remarked, that, to know the 
state of husbandry in any country, you have but to 
examine the instruments employed, the succession of 
crops, and the condition of labourers. Tried by these 
tests, the agriculture of Russia will be found to be 
in a state of great degradation. The plough (called 
soka) which is commonly used is very light, of sim- 
ple construction, and only calculated to enter the 
ground one inch and a half ; the harrow consists of 
one or more young pine-trees (whose branches are 
cut off about eight inches from the stem), steeped in 
water to add to their weight, and tied together. With 
such miserable instruments, each drawn by a single 
horse, the farmer scratches the ground without al- 
ways covering the seed, which is no doubt the rea- 
son that in dry seasons their harvests are very bad.| 

^ Geog. Math., &c., art. Bavaria. Compare the productive- 
ness of Bavaria with England ; the comparison is in favour of 
the former. 

t Idem. % Pallas, pages 3 and 4, vol. i. 



30 AGRICULTURE. 

In the best soil, their succession of crops is of eight 
years; two in barley, two in oats, two in winter rye, 
and two in spring rye. Lands of less fertility are 
sown two years out of three, and mountainous tracts 
one year in three, when they are abandoned to 
weeds until rest shall have reinstated them. "To 
manure them would, in the opinion of a Russian 
peasant, make them poorer;* and therefore he suf- 
fers his dunghill to accumulate into a nuisance, 
while he goes on to clear and exhaust new fields." 
" The grains raised are rye, spelts, barley, millet, and 
oats, which, from want of sufficient roads and mar- 
kets, are often low priced, as are also horned cattle 
and horses : an ox selling for a rouble and a half, a 
cow for one rouble, and a horse for three roubles."! 
To this wretchedness we must add (what, perhaps, 
occasions much of it), that, throughout the civilized 
part of Russia, the labours of agriculture are per-' 
formed by slaves confounded with the soil, and 
bought and sold with it. In a great portion of the 
northern section of this vast empire, agriculture is 
unknown, and the chase, the fisheries, cattle, and 
reindeer, furnish the only means of subsistence. 

XII. The climate and soil of the United King- 
doms of Great Britain and Ireland are particularly 
favourable to husbandry ; nor is her geographical 
position less auspicious ; placed, as she is, on the 
longest hne, and amid the most important markets 
of the Continent of Europe. If to these advantages 
be added the laborious, enlightened, and enterpri- 
sing character of the nation, we cannot but expect 
results the most favourable to agriculture ; yet is 
the fact notoriously otherwise. To show that this 
opinion is neither hasty nor unfounded, we must en- 
ter into details which may not be unprofitable. 

* Pallas, vol. v., p. 60. 

t A silver rouble is equal to five livres French, or nearly one 
dollar Spanish, and this is the rouble here meant. The paper 
rouble is one fifth the value of the silver. 



STATE OF AGRICULTURE IN EUROPE. 31 

The surface of England is estimated at 37,265,853 
acres, which are distributed as follows : 

In pasturage . . . . . . . 18,796.458 

In tillage 11,350,501 

In cities, towns, villages, &c., and roads and canals 3,454,740 
Lands fit for pasturage or tillage not cultivated 3,515,238 
Lands unfit for cultivation .... 2,148,921 

Of the arable land, the following annual disposi- 
tion is made : 

In wheat and rye 2,000,000 

In pease, beans, and buckwheat . . . 2,000,000 

In barley and oats 4,000,000 

In fallow, or in turnips or cabbages . . 3,400,000 

The lands in wheat and rye yield, on an average 
of ten years, three quarters* per acre, or 6,000,000 
quarters ; yet is there an annual deficit in England 
of 1,820,000 quarters, which must be drawn from 
foreign markets.f 

There is certainly nothing very flattering in this 
view of English agriculture ; but it may be said to 
be one of statists and politicians, and probably un- 
derrated. Let us see, then, what their most eminent 
agriculturists, as Young, and St. Clair, and Dick- 
son, and Marshal, say on this subject: "A very 
small portion of the cultivated parts of Great Britain 
is, to this day, submitted to a judicious and well-con- 
ducted system of husbandry, not, in fact, more than 
four counties (Norfolk, Sussex, Essex, and Kent) ; 
while many large tracts of excellent soil are managed 
in a way the most imperfect and disadvantageous."^ 

* Twenty-four bushels. — J. B. 

t The suflnciency of the harvests in England to supply the 
wants of her population depends on the character of the seasons. 
When these are favourable, she imports very little foreign grain ; 
and, in proportion as they are unfavourable, she is obliged to 
resort to supplies from abroad. For the last twenty years her 
average annual importation of breadstuffs has been much less 
than the deficit here given. 

t See the Introduction to Dickson's Practical Agriculture, 
2d vol., quarto. 



32 AGRICULTURE. 

Nor is her management of cattle better. " Con- 
sidering the domestic animals in a general way, 
we find each species, and almost every race, capa- 
ble of great improvement, and, with few exceptions, 
the sheep much neglected. In some districts are 
whole races of cattle capable of improvement, with- 
in a reasonable time, in the three great objects which 
they are expected to yield, viz., milk, flesh, and la- 
bour."* We now add some of the causes to which 
this defective husbandry has been ascribed : " to 
enumerate all would be impossible, from their num- 
ber and complication."! 

" 1st. The commons, or unenclosed grounds, which 
in many places amount to near one half of the whole 
arable land, and which are submitted to the most ab- 
surd and ruinous system of culture."! 

" 2d. The terms, amounting to personal servitude, 
under which many of the lands are held." 

" 3d. The shortness of leases given by corpora- 
tions, civil and religious, and by individuals, and 
which seldom exceed three, five, or seven years, ex- 
cepting in the counties of Norfolk, Sussex, Essex, 
and Kent, where, with great advantage to both land- 
lord and tenant, they are frequently extended to 
twenty-one years." 

" 4th. The tithes in kind, paid by the farmers to 
the church ; a tax highly vexatious in its character 
and oppressive in its effects : and, 

" 5th. The poor tax, which has become enormous, 
and of which the yeomanry pay three fourths. Of 
this tax it has been truly said, that it is a powerful 
instrument of depopulation; a barbarous contri- 
vance for checking all national industry."^ 

* Marshal, vol. iv., p. 575.* 

t Dickson's Practical Agriculture. 

j Idem. 

^ Young's Tour through Ireland, vol. ii., p. 302. 

* Since Marshal, Dickson, and Young wrote, England has 
done more to improve the breeds of cattle and sheep, except the 
fine woolled, than any other nation or country.— J. B. 



THEORY OF VEGETATION. 33 

To these causes, assigned by British writers, may- 
be added the increase o{ population common to every 
nation of Europe, and vvhich, in Great Britain, is be- 
yond all proportion greater than the progress of 
agriculture ; the augmentation of cattle^ which occa- 
sions that of pasturage, and the diminution of til- 
lage ;* the establishment of great farms at the ex- 
pense of small ones, and the multiplication of parks 
and pleasure grounds ; and, lastly, attractions of great 
cities, and the continual draughts made upon the agri- 
cultural population for the army and navy, and for 
commerce and manufactures.! 



CHAPTER III 

THEORY OF VEGETATION. 

Vegetables may be regarded as the intermediate 
link in the great chain of creation between animals 
and minerals. The latter grow by mere chymical 
affinity, and by additions, sometimes analogous to 
and sometimes foreign from their own nature ; 
while plants, like animals, have an organization that 

* Mr. Hume quotes with approbation an author who com 
plains of the decay of tillage in the reign of Elizabeth, and whe 
ascribes it to the increase of pasturage, in consequence of the 
restraints imposed on the exportation of grain, while that of 
butter, cheese, &c., was free. The history of Europe, if read 
with an eye to public economy, furnishes abundant proof that 
the greatest obstructions to agriculture have arisen from the in- 
terference of governmerit. 

t Our author's account of the agriculture of England evi- 
dentiy relates to the state of things in that country some fifty 
years ago ; and, with this understanding, it is mteresting as 
showing more strikingly the extent of the improvements of every 
kind which have been made since. 



34 AGRICULTURE. 

enables them to receive their food, digest and as- 
similate it to their own substance, reproduce their 
species, and maintain an existence of longer or 
shorter duration. Thus far the learned are agreed, 
but at the next step they differ. 

What is this food that gives to plants their devel- 
opment, and maturity, and powers of reproduc- 
tion 1 Lord Bacon believed that water was the 
source of vegetable life, and that the earth was 
merely its habitation, serving to keep plants up- 
right, and to guard them against the extremes of 
heat and cold. Tull, on the other hand (and, after 
him, Du Hamel) pronounced pulverized earth the 
only pabulum of plants, and on this opinion built his 
system of husbandry. Van Helmont and Boyle op- 
posed this doctrine by experiments : the former 
planted and reared a cutting of willow in a bed of 
dry earth, carefully weighed, and protected against 
accretion by a tin plate, so perforated as to admit 
only rain and distilled water, with which it was oc- 
casionally moistened. At the end of five years the 
plant was found to have increased one hundred and 
sixty-four pounds, and the bed of earth to have lost, 
of its or4ginal weight, only two ounces. Boyle pur- 
sued a similar process with gourds, and with a sim- 
ilar result. Notwithstanding the apparent conclu- 
siveness of these experiments, their authority was 
shaken, if not subverted, by others made by Mar- 
graff, Bergman, Hales, Kirwan, &c., &c. The first 
of these showed that the rain water employed by Van 
Helmont was itself charged with saline and other 
earthy matter ; Bergman demonstrated this by anal- 
ysis, while Kirwan and Hales proved that the earth, 
in which the willow cutting was planted, could ab- 
sorb these matters through the pores of the wooden 
box which contained it, and that a glass case could 
alone have prevented such absorption. Hunter, 
finding that oil and salt entered into the composi- 
tion of plants, concluded that these formed their 



THEORY OF VEGETATION. 35 

principal food, awd accordingly recommended, as 
the great desideratum in agriculture, an oil compost. 
Lord Kaimes attempted to revive the expiring creed 
of Lord Bacon ; but finding, from Hale's statics, that 
one third of the weight of a green pea was made up 
of carbonic acid, he added air to the watery aliment 
of the Enghsh philosopher, but entirely rejected 
oil and earth, as too gross to enter the mouths of 
plants, and salt as too acrid to afford them nourish- 
ment. Quackery, which at one time or other has 
made its way into all arts and sciences, could not 
easily be excluded from agriculture. Hence it was 
that the Abbe de Valemont's prolific liquor, and De 
Hare's and De Vallier's powders, &c., &c., were be- 
lieved to be all that was necessary to vegetation, 
and found the more advocates as they promised 
much and cost little. But before the march of 
modern chymistry quackery could not long main- 
tain itself; and from the labours of Bennet, Priest- 
ly, Saussure, Ingenhouz, Sennebier, Schaeder, Chap- 
tal, Davy, &c., &c., few doubts remain on this im- 
portant subject. These will be presented in the 
course of the following inquiry. 

L Of earths, and their relation to vegetation. 

Of six or eight substances which chymists have 
denominated earths, four are widely and abundantly 
diffused, and form the crust of ottr globe. These 
are silica, alumina, lime, and magnesia. The first is 
the basis of quartz, sand, and gravel ; the second of 
clay ; the third of bones, river and marine shells, 
alabaster, marble, limestone, and chalk ; and the 
fourth of that medicinal article known by the name 
of calcined magnesia. In a pure or insulated state,* 
these earths are wholly unproductive ; but, when de- 
composed and mixed,! and to this mixture is added 

* See Gisbert's experiments on pure earths and their mixtures. 
See also Davy's Elements, p. 156. 

t In this respect nature has been neither negligent nor nig- 
gardly, if (as Fourcroy asserts) the purest sand be a mixture of 



36 AGRICULTURE. 

the residuum of dead animal or vegetable matter,* 
they become fertile, take the general name of soils, 
and are again specially denominated after the earth 
that most abounds in their compositions respective- 
ly. If this be siUca, they are called sandy ; if alu- 
mina, argillaceous ; if lime, calcareous ; and if mag- 
nesia, magnesian. Their properties are w^ell known : 
a sandy soil is loose, easily moved, little retentive 
of moisture, and subject to extreme dryness ; an ar- 
gillaceous soil is hard and compact when dry, tough 
and paste-like when vv^et, greedy and tenacious of 
moisture ; turns up, when ploughed, into massive 
clods, and admits the entrance of roots w^ith great 
difficulty. A calcareous soil is dry, friable, and po- 
rous; water enters and leaves it w^ith facility ; roots 
penetrate it without difficulty, and [being already 
greatly divided] less labour is necessary for it than 
for clay. Magnesian, like calcareous earth, is light, 
porous, and friable, but, like clay, when wet, takes 
the consistency of paste, and is very tenacious of 
water. It refuses to combine with oxygen or with 
the alkalies : is generally found associated with 
granite, gneiss, and schist, and is probably among 
the causes of their comparative barrenness.] 

quartz, alumina, and sometimes of calcareous matter. Specu- 
lative geology is romance, and does not merit the name of sci- 
ence ; yet is science^bliged to borrow her theory of soils. The 
alternation of heat and cold, moisture and dryness, decomposed 
the mountains of primitive, secondary, and tertiary formation ; 
rains, and the laws of gravity, brought these broken parts from 
places of more to those of less elevation ; where, by mechani 
cal mixture and chymical combination, the present substrata 
were formed. But these were yet naked and unproductive, 
when the Cryptogamia family (mosses and lichens) took pos 
session of them, and in due time produced that vegetable matter 
which made the earth productive and the globe habitable ! 

* Dead animal and vegetable matter, in the last stage of de- 
composition, give a black or brown powder, which the French 
chymists call terreau or humus, and which Mr. Davy calls an ex 
tractive matter ; this is the fertilizing principle of soils and ma- 
nures. 

t The opinion is general among the chymists of Europe, that 



THEORY OF VEGETATION. 37 

In these qualities are found the mechanical relations 
between earths and vegetables. To the divisibility 
of the former it is owing that the latter are enabled 
to push their roots into the earth ; to their density, 
that plants maintain themselves in an erect posture, 
rise into the air, and resist the action of winds and 
rains ; and to their power of absorbing and holding 
water, they owe the advantage of a prolonged ap 
plication of moisture, necessary or useful to vege 
table life. But, besides performing these important 
offices, there is reason to believe that the earths con 
tribute to the food of vegetables. This opinion rests 
on the following considerations and experiments : 

1. If earths do not contribute directly to the food 
of plants, then would all soils be alike productive ; 
or, in other words, if air and water exclusively sup- 
ply this food, then would a soil of pure sand be as 
productive as one of the richest alluvion. 

2. Though plants may be made to grow in pound- 
ed glass or in metallic oxydes, yet is their growth 
in these neither healthy nor vigorous : and, 

3. All plants, on analysis, yield an earthy pro- 
duct ;* and this product is found to partake of the 
earth that predominates in the soil producing the 
analyzed plant. This important fact is proved by 
De Saussure. 

FIRST EXPERIMENT. 

Two plants (the pinus abies) were selected, the 
one from a calcareous, the other from a granitic 
soil, the ashes of which gave the following pro- 
ducts : 

Granitic soil. Calcareous soil. 

Potash .... 3.60 ... 15 
Aik. and mu. sulphates 4.24 . . 15 

magnesian earth is not only barren itself, but the cause of barren- 
ness in other soils in which it may abound, unless saturated with 
carbonic acid. See Bosc, Tenant, and Davy. 

* Davy says this never exceeds one fiftieth of the whole pro- 
iluct. 



38 AGRICULTURE. 

Carbonate of lime . 46.34 . . . 63 

Carbonate of magnesia 6.77 ... 00 

Silica .... 13.49 ... 00 

Alumina . . . 14.86 ... 16 

Metallic oxydes . . 10.52 ... 00 

SECOND EXPERIMENT. 

Two rhododendrons were taken, one from the 
calcareous soil of Mont de la Salle, the other from 
the granitic soil of Mont Bevern. Of a hundred 
parts, the former gave fifty seven of carbonate of 
lime and five of silica; the latter, tliirty of carbon- 
ate of lime and fourteen of silica. 

THIRD EXPERIMENT. 

This was made to determine whether vegetables, 
the product of a soil having in it no silica, would, 
notwithstanding, partake of that earth. Plants were 
accordingly taken from Reculey de Thoiry (a soil 
altogether calcareous), and the result was a very 
small portion of silica. 

These experiments, says Chaptal, leave little, if 
any doubt, that vegetables derive the earthy matter 
they contain from the soil in which they grow.* 

II. Of water, as an agent- in vegetation. 

Seeds placed in the earth at a temperature above 
the freezing point, and watered, will develop ; that 
is, their lobesf will swell, their roots descend into 
the earth, and their stems rise into the air. But 
vi^ithout humidity they will not germinate ; or, if de- 
prived of humidity after germination, they will per- 
ish. When germination is complete and the plant 
formed, its roots and leaves are so organized as to 

* Schseder maintains the doctrine, that the earths found in 
plants are created there by the process of vegetation. His essay 
on this subject was crowned by the academy of Berlin in 1801. 
His experiments were the first to determine the di fife rent quan- 
tities of siUca found in diflferent kinds of grain. 

t Moisten a bean in warm water, and detach the skin that 
covers it, and it readily divides into two parts ; these are called 
lobes. 



THEORY OF VEGETATION. 39 

absorb water. The experiments of Hales prove, that 
the weight of plants is increased in -wet and dimin- 
ished in dry weather; and that, in the latter, they 
draw from the atmosphere, by means of their 
leaves,* the moisture necessary for their well-being. 
Du Hamel, and, after him, Sennebier, has shown, 
that the filaments that surround the roots of plants, 
and which have been called their hair, perform for 
them in the earth the office which leaves perform in 
the atmosphere ; and that, if deprived of these fila- 
ments, the plants die. 

It would be easy, but useless, to multiply facts 
of this kind, tending to establish a doctrine not con- 
tested, but which, after all, does not assert that water 
makes any part of the food of plants. On this point 
two opinions exist ; the one, that this liquid is a 
solvent and conductor of alimentary juices; the 
other, that it is itself an aliment, and, at the same 
time, a purveyor of vegetable food. The first opin- 
ion is abundantly established. Water, when char- 
ged with oxygen, supplies to germinating seeds the 
want of atmospheric air ; and, saturated with animal 
or vegetable matter in a state of decomposition, or 
slightly impregnated with carbonic acid, very per- 
ceptibly quickens and invigorates vegetation. The 
second opinion is favoured by some of De Saussure's 
experiments. On these Chaptal makes the follow- 
ing remark, which expresses very distinctly an ap- 
probation of the doctrine they suggest : " The enor- 
mous quantity of hydrogen, which makes so large a 
part of vegetable matter, cannot be accounted for 
but by admitting, in the process of vegetation, the 
decomposition of water, of which hydrogen is the 
principal constituent ; and that, though there is no- 
thing in the present state of our experience that di- 
rectly establishes this doctrine, yet that its truth 

* Bonnet's experiments show, that it is the under surface of 
the leaf that performs this function. The upper surface has a 
different office. 



40 AGRICULTURE. 

ought to be presumed from the analysis of plants 
and the necessary and well-known action of water 
on vegetation." 

III. Of air, and its agency in vegetation. 

A seed deprived of air will not germinate ; and a 
plant placed under an exhausted receiver will soon 
perish. Even in a close and badly ventilated gar- 
den, vegetables indicate their situation; they are 
sickly in appearance and vapid in taste. These 
facts sufficiently show the general utility of air to 
vegetation : but air is not now the simple and ele- 
mentary body that the ancient chymists described 
it to be. Priestley first,* and Lavoisier after him, 
analyzed it, and found that, when pure, it consisted 
of about 70 parts of azote, 27 of oxygen, and 2 of 
carbonic acid. In its ordinary or impure state, it 
is loaded with foreign and light bodies; such as 
mineral, animal, and vegetable vapours, the seeds of 
plants, the eggs of insects, &c. Is it to this aggre- 
gate that vegetation owes the services rendered to 
it by air? And, if not, to how many and to xohich of 
its regular constituents are we to ascribe theml 
This inquiry will form the subject of the present 
article. 

All vegetables in a state of decomposition give 
azote; and some of them, as cabbages, radishes, 
&c., in great quantity. This abundance, combined 
with the fact that vegetation is always vigorous in 
the neighbourhood of dead animal matter, led to the 
opinion that azote contributed largely to the growth 
of plants ; but experiments, more exactly made and 
often repeated, disprove this opinion, and show that 
in any quantity it is unnecessary, and that, in a cer- 
tain proportion, it is fatal to vegetation. 

In hydrogen gas plants are found to be variously 
affected, according to their local situation ; if in- 

* See Priestley's Experiments and Observations on different 
kinds of Ait bngun in 1767. 



THEORY OF VEGETATION. 41 

habitants of mountains, they soon perish; if of 
plains, they show a constant debihty ; but if of 
marshy grounds, their growth is not impeded. 

Carbonic acid is formed and given out during the 
process of fermentation, putrefaction, respiration, 
&c., and makes 28 parts out of 100 of atmospheric 
air. It is composed, according to Davy, of oxygen 
and carbon, in the proportion of 34 of the former 
to 13 of the latter. It combines freely with many 
different bodies ; animals and vegetables are almost 
entirely composed of it ; for the coal which they 
give, on combustion, is but carbon united to a little 
oxygen, &c. Priestley was the first to discover that 
plants absorb carbonic acid; and Ingenhouse, Senne- 
bier, and De Saussure have proved that it is their 
principal aliment. Indeed, the great consumption 
made of it cannot be explained by any natural pro- 
cess excepting that of vegetation. On this head 
we cannot do better than digest the experiments of 
the last of these chymists into a few distinct pro- 
portions :* 

1. In pure carbonic acid gas, seeds will swell, but 
not germinate. 2. United with water, this gas has- 
tens vegetation. 3. Air, containing more than one 
twelfth part of its volume of carboi^ic acid, is most 
favourable to vegetation. 4. Turf, or other carbona- 
ceous earth, which contains much carbonic acid, is 
unfavourable to vegetation until it has been exposed 
to the action of atmospheric air, or of lime, &c. 
5. If slackened lime be applied to a plant, its growth 
will be impaired until the lime shall have recovered 
the carbonic acid which it lost by calcination. 6. 
Plants kept in an artificial atmosphere, and charged 
with carbonic acid, yield, on combustion, more of 
that acid than plants of the same kind and weight 
growing in atmospheric air. 7. When plants are 
exposed to air and sunshine, the carbonic acid of 

* Recherches chymiques sur la vegetation, chap. ii. 



43 AGRICULTURE. 

the atmosphere is consumed, and a portion of oxy- 
gen left in its place. If new supplies of carbonic 
acid be given to the air, the same result follows; 
whence it has been concluded, that air furnishes 
carbonic acid to the plant, and that the plant fur- 
nishes oxygen to the air. This double function of 
absorption and respiration is performed by the green 
leaves of plants.* 8. Carbon is to vegetation what 
oxygen is to animal life : it gives support by puri- 
fying the liquids and rendering the solids more 
compact. 

IV. Of light, heat, and electricity, and their agen- 
cy in vegetation. 

When deprived of light, plants are pale, lax, and 
dropsical ; restored to it, they recover their colour, 
consistency, and odour. If a plant be placed in a 
cellar, into which is admitted a small portion of 
light through a window or cranny, thither the 
plant directs its growth, and even acquires an un- 
natural length in its attempt to reach it.f These 
facts admitted, no one can doubt the agency of 
light in vegetation ; but, in relation to this agency, 
various opinions exist ; one, that light enters vege- 
table matter and combines with it ; another, that it 
makes no part either of the vegetable or of its ali- 
ment, but direct]3r influences substances which are 
alimentary ;% and a third, that, besides the last ef- 
fect, it stimulates the organs of plants to the exer- 
cise of their natural functions.^ 

Without doing more than state these opinions, 
we proceed to offer the results of many experi- 
ments on this subject. 1st. That in the dark no ox- 
ygen is produced, nor any carbonic acid observed ; 
on the contrary, oxygen is absorbed and carbonic 
acid produced. 2d. That plants exposed to light 

* This was a discovery of Sennebier. 
t It is by a knowledge of this fact that gardeners bleach chic 
>ry, cellery, &c. 
t See Fourcroy, vol. viii. ^ See Chaptal on Vegetation. 



THEORY OP VEGETATION. 43 

produce oxygen gas in water. 3d. That light is es- 
sential to vegetable transpiration ; as this process 
never takes place during the night, but is copious 
through the day ; and, 4th. That pl^ts raised in the 
dark abound in watery and saccharine juices, but 
are deficient in woody fibre, oil, and resins ; whence 
it is concluded that saccharine compof^nds are 
formed in the night, and oil, resins, &c., in the day. 

When the weather is at or below the freezing 
point, the sap of plants remain suspended and hard- 
ened in the alburnum ;* but, on the application of 
heat, whether naturally or artificially excited, this 
sap is rendered fluid, is put into motion, and the buds 
begin to swell. Under the same impulse, through 
the medium of the earth, the roots open their pores, 
receive nutritive juices, and carry them to the heart 
of the plant. The leaves being now developed, 
begin and continue the exercise of their functions, 
till winter again, in the economy of nature, sus- 
pends the operation of the machine. Nor is the ac- 
tion of heat confined to the circulation of vegeta- 
ble juices; without vapour (its legitimate offspring), 
the fountain and the shower would be unknown ; 
nor would the great processes of animal and vege- 
table fermentation and decomposition go on. With- 
out rain or other means of amehorating the soil, 
what would be the aspect of the globe '\ what the 
sta>te of vegetation] what the situation of man] 

The universal diffusion of electrical matter, found 
in the air and in all other substances, furnishes a 
presumption that it is an efficient agent in vegeta- 
tion. Nollet and others have thought that, artifi- 
cially employed, it favoured the germination of 
seeds and the growth of plants ; and Davy '• found 
that corn sprouted more rapidly in water positively 
electrified by the voltaic battery than in water neg- 
atively electrified."! These opinions have not es- 

* Knight's Observations, &c. f Davy's Elements. 

4 



44 AGRICULTURE. 

caped contradiction, and we do not profess to decide 
where philosophers disagree. 

V. Of stable manures, and of lim^, marl, and gyp- 
sum, and their agency in vegetation. 

We have already said that vegetables in the last 
stage of decomposition yield a black or brown pow- 
der, which Davy calls " a peculiar extractive matter 
of fertilizing quality,'''' and which the chy mists of 
France have denominated terreau* This vegetable 
residuum is the simple mean employed by nature to 
re-establish that principle of fertility in the soil 
which the wants of man and other animals are con- 
stantly drawing from it. It was analyzed by Hes- 
senfratz, who found it to contain an oily, extractive, 
and carbonaceous matter, charged with hydrogen ; 
the acetates and benzoates of potash, lime, and am- 
moniac ; the sulphates and muriates of potash, and 
a soapy substance, previously noticed by Bergman. 
Among other properties (and which shows its com- 
bustible character) is that of absorbing from atmo- 
spheric air its oxygen, and leaving it only azote. 
This was discovered by Ingenhouse, who, with De 
Saussure and Braconnet, pursued the subject by 
many new and interesting experiments, the result of 
which is, 

1. That the oxygen thus absorbed deprives the 
terreau or extractive matter of part of its carbon, 
which it renders soluble and converts into muci- 
lage; and, 

2. That the carbonic acid formed in the process 
combines with this mucilage, and with it is absorb- 
ed by the roots of plants. 

If we put a plant and a quantity of slackened 
lime under the same receiver, the plant will perish, 
because the lime will take from the atmospheric air 
all the carbonic acid it contains, and thus starve the 
plant. Vegetables placed near heaps of lime in the 

* De Candolle and Macaire call it humus, and Dance and 
others geine.—i. B. 



THEORY OF VEGETATION. 45 

open air suffer from the same cause and in the 
same way ; but though lime in large quantities de- 
stroys vegetation, in small quantities it renders it 
more vigorous. Its action is of two kinds, me- 
chanical and chymical ; the first is the mere divis- 
ion of the soil by an interposition between its parts , 
the second, the faculty of rendering soluble vegeta- 
ble matter, and reducing it to the condition of ter- 
reau. 

The mechanical agency ascribed to lime belongs 
also to marl and to ashes, and in an equal degree ; 
but their chymical operation, though similar, is less.* 

Gypsum is composed of lime and sulphuric acid. 
Mayer was the first to present to the pubhc a series 
of experiments upon it in its relation to agriculture. 
Many chymists have followed him, and a great va- 
riety of opinion yet exists with regard to its mode 
of operation. Yvart thinks that the action of gyp- 
sum is exclusively the effect of the sulphuric acid, 
which enters into its composition ; and founds this 
opinion upon the fact that the ashes of turf, which 
contain sulphate of iron and sulphate of alumina, 
have the same action upon vegetation as gypsum. 
Laysterie, observing that plants whose roots were 
nearest the surface of the soil were most acted 
upon by plaster, concludes that gypsum takes from 
the atmosphere the elements of vegetable life, and 
transmits them directly to plants. Bosc intimates 
that the septic quality of gypsum (which he takes 
for granted) best explains its action on vegetation ; 
but this opinion is subverted by the experiments 
of Davy, who found that, of two parcels of minced 
veal, the one mixed with gypsum, the other left 
by itself, and both exposed to the action of the sun, 
the latter was the first to exhibit symptoms of pu- 
trefaction. Davy's own belief on this subject is, 

* Vegetable ashes are lime combined with an earthy saline 
matter. 



46 AGRICULTURE. 

that it makes part of the food of vegetables, is re- 
ceived into the plant, and combined with it. The 
last opinion we shall offer on this head is that of 
the celebrated Chaptal. " Of all substances," he 
says, " gypsum is that of whose action we know 
the least. The prodigious effect it has on the whole 
race of trefoils (clover), &e., cannot be explained by 
any mechanical agency, the quantity applied being so 
small ; nor by any stimulating Ytower^ since gypsum, 
raw or roasted, has nearly the same effect ; nor by 
any absorbent quality, as it only acts when applied to 
the leaves. If permitted to conjecture its mode of 
operation, we should say that its effects being great- 
est when applied to the wet leaves of vegetables, it 
may have the faculty of absorbing and giving out 
water and carbonic acid, little by little, to the grow- 
ing plant. It may also be considered as an aliment 
in itself; an idea much supported by Mr. Davy's ex- 
periments, which show that the ashes of clover yield 
gypsum, though the clover be raised on soils not nat- 
urally containing that substance." 



CHAPTER IV. 

OF THE ANALYSIS OF SOILS, AND OF THE AGRICULTU- 
RAL RELATIONS BETWEEN SOILS AND PLANTS. 

We have seen that the earths have a threefold 
capacity; that they receive and lodge the roots of 
plants, and support their stems ; that they absorb 
and hold air, water, and mucilage, ahments neces- 
sary to vegetable life ; and that they even contrib- 
ute a portion of themselves to these aliments. 
But we have also seen that they are not equally 
adapted to these offices ; that their parts, texture, 



ANALYSIS OF SOILS 47 

and qualities are different; that they are cold or 
warm, wet or dry, porous or compact, barren or 
productive, in proportion as one or tlie other may 
predominate in the soil ; and that, to fit them for dis- 
charging the various functions to which they are 
destined, each must contribute its share, and all be 
minutely divided and intimately mixed. In this great 
work nature has performed her part ; but, as is usual 
with her, she has wisely and benevolently left some- 
thing for man to do. 

This necessary interposition of human industry 
should obviously begin by ascertaining the nature 
of the soil. But neither the touch nor the eye, how- 
ever practised or acute, can in all cases determine 
this. Clay, when wet, is cold and tenacious ; a de- 
scription that belongs also to magnesian earths : 
sand and gravel are hard and granular ; but so also 
are some of the modifications of lime : vegetable 
mould is black and friable, but not exclusively so : 
for schistous and carbonaceous earths have the same 
properties. 

It is here, then, that chymistry oflfers herself to ob- 
viate difficulties and remove doubts ; but neither the 
apparatus nor processes of this science are within 
the reach of all who are interested in the inquiry, 
and we accordingly subjoin a method less compre- 
hensive, but more simple, and sufficiently exact for 
agricultural purposes, and which calls only for two 
vases, a pair of scales, clean water, and a little sul- 
phuric acid. 

" 1st. Take a small quantity of earth from diflfer- 
ent parts of the field, the soil of which you wish to 
ascertain ; mix them well together, and weigh them ; 
put them in an oven heated for baking bread, and, 
after they are dried, weigh them again ; the differ- 
ence will show the absorbent power of the earth, or 
the quantity of water which it contained. When 
the loss of weight in 400 grains amounts to 50, this 
power is great, and indicates the presence of much 



48 AGRICULTURE. 

animal or vegetable matter ; but when it does not 
exceed twenty, the absorbent power is small, and 
the vegetable matter deficient.* 

" 2d. Put the dried mass into a vase, with one 
fourth of its own weight of clear water; mix them 
well together ; pour off the dirty water into a second 
vase, and pour on to the residuum in the first vase as 
much clean water as before ; stir the contents, and 
continue this process until the water poured off is 
as clear as that poured on the earth. What remains 
in the first employed vase is sand, silicious or cal- 
careous. \ 

" 3d. The dirty water collected in the second vase 
will form a deposite, which, after pouring off the 
water, must be dried, weighed, and calcined. On 
weighing it after this process, the quantity lost will 
show the portion of animal and vegetable mould con- 
tained in the soil : and, 

" 4th. This calcined matter must then be carefully 
pulverized and weighed, as also the first deposite of 
sand, but without mixing them. To these apply, 
separately, sulphuric acid, and what they respect- 
ively lose in weight is the portion of calcareous or 
aluminous earths contained in them. These last, 
again, may be separated by soap ley, which dis- 
solves them."t 

Here, then, is the light we wanted. By knowing 
the disease, we find the cure. Clay and sand qual- 
ify each other ; either of these will correct an ex- 
cess of lime ; and magnesian earth, when saturated 
with carbonic acid, becomes fertile. 

But entirely to alter the constitution of a soil, 
whether by mechanical or other means, is a work 
of time, labour, and expense, and little adapted to 
the pecuniary circumstances of farmers in general. 

» See Davy's Elements. 

t This method of analyzing soils is that described by M. 
Bosc, member of the Institute of France, &c., and recommend- 
ed to French agriculturists. 



ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 49 

Fortunately, a remedy cheaper, more accessible, 
and less difficult, is found in that great diversity of 
habits and character which mark the vegetable 
races. We shall, therefore, in what remains of this 
chapter, indicate the principal of these, as furnish 
ing the basis of all rational agriculture. 

1st. Plants have different systems of roots, stems, 
and leaves, and adopt themselves, accordingly, to dif- 
ferent kinds of soils : the tussilago prefer clay, the 
spergula sand ; asparagus will not flourish on a bed 
of granite, nor muscus Islandicus on one of allu- 
vion. It is obvious that fbrous-rooted plants, which 
occupy only the surface of the earth, can subsist on 
comparatively stiff and compact soils, in which 
those of the leguminous and cruciform families 
would perish, from inability to penetrate and divide. 

2d. Plants of the same or of a similar kind do not 
follow each other advantageously in the same soil. 
Every careful observer must have seen how grasses 
alternate in meadows or pastures where nature is 
left to herself. At one time timothy, at another 
clover, at a third redtop, and at a fourth blue grass 
prevails. The same remark applies to forest trees ; 
the original growth of wood is rarely succeeded by 
a second of the same kind; pine is followed by- 
oak, oak by chestnut, chestnut by hickory. A young 
apple-tree will not live in the place where an old 
one has died ; even the pear-tree does not thrive in 
succession to an apple-tree, but stone fruit will 
follow either with advantage. " In the Gautinois," 
says Bosc, " saffron is not resumed but after a lapse 
of twenty years ; and in the Netherlands, flax and 
colzat require an interval of six years. Pease, when 
they follow beans, give a lighter crop than when 
they succeed plants of another family."* 

* The ill effect of a succession of crops of the same kind was 
not unknown to the Romans. We have proof of this in the fol- 
lowing passage of Festus : " Restibilis ager fit qui continuo 



50 AGRICULTURE. 

3d. Vegetables, lohether of the same family or not^ 
having a similar structure of roots, should not succeed 
each other. It has been observed that trees suffer 
considerably by the neighbourhood of sainfoin and 
lucerne, on account of the great depth to which the 
roots of these plants penetrate ; whereas culraifer- 
ous grasses do them no harm. 

4th. Annual or biennial trefoils prevent the escape 
of moisture from sandy and arid soils, and should 
constantly cover them in the absence of other 
plants ;* while drying and dividing crops, as beans, 
cabbages, chicory, &c., &c,, are best fitted to correct 
the faults of stiff and wet clays. 

5th. When plants are cultivated in rows or hills, and 
the ground between them is thoroughly worked, the 
earth is kept open, divided, and permeable to air, heat, 
and water, and, accordingly, receives from the atmo- 
sphere nearly as much alimentary provision as it gives 
to the plant. This principle is the basis of drill hus- 
bandry. 

6th. All plants permitted to go through the phases 
of vegetation (and, of course, to give their seeds), ex- 
haust the ground in a greater or less degree ; but, if 
cut green and before seeding, they take little from the 
principle of fertility. 

7th. Plants are exhausters in proportion to the length 
of the time they occupy the soil. Those of the cul- 
miferous kinds (wheat, rye, &c.) do not ripen, if 
sown in the fall, under ten months, and during this 
period forbid the earth from being stirred; while, 
on the other hand, leguminous plants occupy it but 
from three to four months, and permit frequent 
ploughings. This is one reason why culmiferous 

biennio seritur farreo spico, id est aristato, quod, ne fiat solent, 
qui pradia locant, excipere." 

* The "sterilis tellos medio versatur in jestu"— the bare 
earth turned up in midsummer — of Virgil, shows the opinion 
he entertained of a husbandry that left the fields without vege- 
tation. 



ANALYSIS OF SOILS. 51 

crops are greater exhausters than leguminous ; an- 
other is, that the stems of culmiferous plants be- 
come hard and flinty, and their leaves dry and yel- 
low, from the time of flowering till the ripening of 
the seed, losing their inhaling or absorbing facul- 
ties, circulating no juices, and hving altogether- in 
their roots, and on ahments exclusively derived 
from the earth ; whereas leguminous or cruciferous 
plants, as cabbages, turnips, &c., &c., have succu- 
lent stems, and broad and porous leaves, and draw 
their principal nourishment from the atmosphere. 
The remains of culmiferous crops also are fewer 
and less easily decomposed than those of the legu- 
minous family. 

8th. Meadows^ natural and artificial^ yield the food 
necessary to cattle^ and, in proportion as these are mul- 
tiplied, manures are increased and the soil made better. 
Another circumstance which recommends meadows 
is, that, so long as they last, they exact but little 
labour, and leave the whole force of the farmer to 
be directed to his arable grounds. 

9th. Grasses are either fibrous or tap-rooted, or both 
The remarks already made in articles 1, 2, and 3, ap- 
ply also to them. Timothy, redtop, oat-grass, and 
rye-grass, succeed best in stiff", wet soils. Sainfoin 
does well on soils the most bare, mountainous, and 
arid ; lucerne and the trefoils (or clovers) only at- 
tain the perfection of which they are susceptible in 
warm, dry, calcareous earth. 

10th. The ameliorating quality of tap-rocted plants 
is supposed to be in proportion to their natural duration ; 
annual clover (lupinella) has less of this property 
than biennial (Dutch clover), biennial less than sain- 
foin, and sainfoin less than lucerne. 

11th. Any green crop ploughed into the soil has 
an effect highly improving ; but for this purpose lu- 
pines and buckwheat (cut when in flower) are most 
proper. 

12th. Mixed crops (as Indian corn and pumpkins, 
5 



52 AGRICULTURE. 

and pease and oats) are much and profitably employed, 
and with less injury to the soil than either corn or oats 
alone.* 



CHAPTER V. 

OF PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE, AND ITS NECESSARY IN- 
STRUMENTS. 

We begin this part of our subject with a few re- 
marks on the instruments necessary to agriculture, 
which may be comprised under the well-known 
names of the plough, the harrow, the roller, the 
threshing-machine, and the fanning-mill. 

I. Of the Plough. 

It is among the inscrutable dispensations of Prov- 
idence, that the arts most useful to man have been 
of later discovery, of slower growth, and of less 
marked improvement than those that aimed only 
at his destruction. At a time when the phalanx 
and the legion were invented and perfected, and 
when the instruments they employed were various 
and powerful, those of agriculture continued to be 
few, simple, and inefficient. 

Of the Greek plough we know nothing ;• and the 
general disuse of that described by Virgil and Pliny 
furnishes a degree of evidence that experience has 
found it incompetent to its objects. With even the 
boasted lights of modern knowledge, scientific men 

* The good effect of these mixtures was known to the an- 
cients, from whom the practice has descended to us. What a 
picture of fertility and abundance have we in the 22d chap., 18th 
book, of Pliny's Natural History : " Sub vita seritur frumentum, 
mox legumen, decinde olus, omnia, eodem anno, omuiaque ali- 
ena umbra aluntur." Under the vine is sowed grain, shortly af- 
terward pulse, then garden vegetables, all in the same year, and 
sheltered and cherished by each other's shade. 



PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 53 

are not agreed upon the form and proportions most 
proper for this instrument. As in other cases, so in 
this, there may be no abstract perfection; what is 
best in one description of soil may not be so in an- 
other; yet, as in all soils the office of the plough is 
the same, viz., to cleave and turn over the earth, there 
cannot but be some definite shape and proportions 
better fitted for these purposes, and, at the same 
time, less susceptible of resistance, than any other. 

This beau ideal, this supposititious excellence, in 
the mechanism of a plough, has been the object of 
great national as well as individual research. In 
Great Britain, high prizes have been established for 
its attainment ; and in France, under the ministry of 
Chaptal, 10,000 francs, or $3000, were offered for 
this object by the agricultural society of the Seine. 
In both countries the subject has employed many- 
able pens ; those of Lord Kaimes, of Mr. Young, of 
Mr. Arbuthnot, of Lord Somerville, and of Mes* 
sieurs Duhamel, Chateauvieux, Bosc, Guillaume, 
&c. It is not for us, therefore, to do more than 
assemble and present such rules for the construc- 
tion of this instrument as have most attained the 
authority of maxims. 

1st. The beam, or that part of the plough which 
carries the coulter, and furnishes the point of draught, 
should be as near that of resistance as possible ; be- 
cause the more these are approached, the less is the 
moving power required. Even the shape of the 
beam is not a matter of indifference. In the old 
ploughs it was generally straight, but a small 
curve is now preferred; because it has the effect 
of strengthening the coulter by shortening it. 

2d. The head of the plough is the plane on which 
it moves. This should be concave, because tha": 
form off*ers fewer points of friction, and, of course^ 
less resistance. Between the beam and the head is 
an angle, on which depends the orincipal office of 
the plough ; the making, at will, a -iecp or a shal 



54 AGRICULTURE. 

low furrow. If you wish a deep furrow, diminish 
the angle, and vice versa: but this angle should in 
no case exceed from 18 to 24 degrees. 

The resistance made to the plough being produ- 
ced less by the weight of the earth than by the co- 
hesion of its parts, it is evident that the head should 
be shod with iron, and rendered as smooth as pos- 
sible. This remark applies equally to the soc and 
to the mouldboard. 

3d. The soc^ in its widest part, should be larger 
than the head. It has different shapes in different 
countries. In some is given to it that of an isosce- 
les triangle ; in others, that of the head of a lance ; 
in Biscay, that of a crescent ; and in Poland; of a 
two pronged fork. But, whatever be its shape, it 
should be well pointed and pohshed, enter the earth 
with facility, and cut it easily. 

4th. To the mouldboard some workmen give the 
shape of a prismatic wedge ; others make the up- 
per part convex and the lower concave : while 
many make it entirely flat. In stiff soils, the semi- 
cycloid'isiYiG form to be preferred; and in loose, fri- 
able soils, the semi- ellipsis* The iron mouldboard 
has great advantages over the wooden, particularly 
when it, the shear, and the soc, form one piece, as 
in the ploughs of Mr. Cook. 

It is a general opinion, that a heavy plough is 
more disadvantageous than a light one ; because 
the draught of the former, being greater, will be more 
fatiguing to the cattle ; but the experiments of the 
agricultural society of London estabhsh a contrary 
doctrine, and show that, in light grounds, the labour 
is more easily and better performed with a heavy 
than with a light plough. 

5th. The coulter is a species of knife inserted in the 
beam, and so placed before the soc as to cut the sod. 
It is susceptible of being raised or depressed at will, 

6th. The handles of the plough ought to be made 
* See Arbuthnot on Ploughs. 



PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 



55 



of some kind of heavy wood, that they may operate 
as a counter weight to the head, the soc, and the 
mouldboard. 

To these remarks we subjoin two sets of experi- 
ments, made with the most approved French and 
EngUsh ploughs, that of Guiilaume and Small's 
Rotheram plough improved,, which furnish a means of 
comparison between the best ploughs of Europe and 
those of this country. 

The resistance (stated in these tables) was meas- 
ured and ascertained by a dynonometer^ a machine 
indispensable to those who would make correct ob- 
servations on the relative advantages of different 
ploughs. 



THE FRENCH PLOUGH. 




THE ENGLISH 


PLOUGH. 


Resistance in pounds. 




Resistance in 


pounds. 


1st experiment . . 200 


1st experiment 




360 


2d "... 240 


2d 


tt 






380 


3d "... 200 


3d 


(( 








480 


4th "... 220 


4th 










460 


5th " ." . . 220 


5th 










400 




6th 










400 


Divided by 5)1080 


7th 










420 




8th 










386 


Average . . 216 


9th 










440 






Divided by 9)3720 






Average 








413 



IL The Harrow. — This is of different kinds ; the 
triangular and the square, the single and the double. 
But, of whatever form, its uses are the same ; to 
smooth the field after ploughing, to break and pul- 
verize the clods, and to cover the seed. These 
uses sufficiently indicate the propriety of employ- 
ing two in succession ; one of heavy frame, with 
few and long teeth, like the Scotch break ; the 
other of lighter construction, with more and short- 
er teeth. Our own experience leads us to believe 
that the common harrow covers the seed too much, 



56 AGRICULTURE. 

because small seeds will not vegetate at a depth 
greater than three inches. 

III. The Roller is a cyhnder of heavy wood, turn- 
ing on gudgeons or on an axle, and placed in a 
frame, to which is attached a shaft , it is of differ- 
ent dimensions, but need not exceed that which 
may be drawn by one, or, at most, by two horses or 
oxen. This instrument is indispensable in good 
husbandry, yet it is rarely used in ours. Its offi- 
ces are threefold ; to render loose soil more com- 
pact, to break the clods on stiff ones, and, on both, 
to compress the earth after seeding, so that it be 
everywhere brought in contact with the grain. It is 
also usefully employed in reinstating the roots of 
meadow grasses, loosened and raised by the alter- 
nate freezing and thawing of the ground, "and, with 
a similar view, may be passed over winter crops 
early in the spring. 

Its clod-breaking and pulverizing property is 
much increased by surrounding the roller with nar- 
row bands of iron, two inches broad, three inches 
thick, and six inches apart ; or by studding it with 
iron pomts resembling harrow teeth, and projecting 
Ihree or four inches. 

IV. The Threshing-machine is of English inven- 
=-:ion, and may be well enough adapted to the taste 
and circumstances of rich amateurs, but not at all 
to those of farmers in general. Our objections to 
it are three: the first cost, which is great; the 
quantum of moving power employed, which is equal 
to that of six horses ; and the number of hands re- 
quired to attend it, which is not less than four.* 
We have seen, in France, a machine for the same 
purpose, but of much simpler structure, called the 
'' Rouleau de depiquer^'' which is only a fluted cylin- 
der ; yet, simple and cheap as this was, it could not 

* This opinion of the value of the threshing-machine will, 
we presump, meet with but little favour among our wheat 
farmers. 



PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. 57 

maintain itself against the more ancient instru' 
ments, the flail and the horse. Still it is to be 
hoped that new experiments may succeed better, 
and abridge the manual labour usually given to this 
branch of husbandry, and that the mechanical genius 
of our own country, which is not inferior to that of 
any other, may be the first to combine power and 
cheapness in this machine. 

This hope is probably suggested by the descrip- 
tion of a new invented threshing machine now be- 
fore me, and which I may be permitted to trans- 
cribe from the letter of the inventor. " The ma- 
chine I have built is three feet wide. One horse 
will thresh, with much ease, as much wheat as can 
be laid on it by one man (the straw to be taken 
away by another), say from ffty to one hundred 
bushels in a day, and the saving of grain will pay for 
the labour ; for I think that, with good attendance, 
not a particle of grain can escape with the straw. 
The expense of the machine will be from fifty to 
seventy dollars, exclusive of the moving power, 
which is awheel about ten feet diameter on an up- 
right shaft, to which a lever is fixed to hitch the 
horse. Within this main wheel a small one should 
be made to work, about two feet diameter, on a 
shaft carrying a drum four feet wide. With this 
simple gearing, and drawn by a horse that walks 
well, the machine will give about eighteen hundred 
strokes in a minute, and, if fully attended, will, with- 
out hard labour for the horse, thresh a bushel every 
three or four minutest 

V. The Fanning-mill. Other things being equal, 
the cleanest wheat is most easily preserved, and, on 
manufacture, gives the best flour and in the largest 
quantity. These considerations off'er inducement 
enough for the employment of this machine, which, 
besides doing its business well, saves a great deal 
of time. It is too well known to lequire descrip- 
tion. 



58 



AGRICULTURE. 



CHAPTER VI. 



OF MANURES ; THEIR MANAGEMENT AND APPLICATION. 



The principle of fertility (the result of animal and 
vegetable decomposition) is, as we have seen, sus- 
ceptible of solution, and in this form becomes the 
aliment of that artificial vegetation which is the 
work of man, and which leaves so little on the 
earth to compensate for the great deal which it 
takes from it. In a course of years, therefore, 
there will be an actual loss or subtraction of mat- 
ter, useful or necessary to the growth of plants, 
and which can only be re-established by manures of 
vegetable or animal origin. The most approved 
methods of preserving and applying these must 
therefore be among the objects most important to 
the agriculturist ; and that the reader may better 
understand the reasons of the practice we mean to 
recommend, we begin the discussion with Kirwan's 
analysis of stable manures.* 

















■°1 

•a 






„. 










•s-^ 






i 


1 


g- 


i 


S 
1 


In 






o 


J 


o 


■Si 
2. 4 


0. 6 


u 
92.80 


,s 


(Cow dung J ^ 


3.75 


1.20 


0.15 


Tn'^ 


< Horse dung > .> 


10. 2 


1.50 


0.50 


3. 


0.21 


89.77 


o 


^ Sheep dung > '^ 


25. 


10.28 


29. 


29. 


0.72 


68.00 



* TuU and Du Hamel's doctrine, that frequent ploughings 
and sowings superseded the necessity of manure, is no longer 
held by any well-instructed agriculturist. The maxim of Oliver 
de Serris is much better founded. " Le bien labourer, le bien 
fumer, est tout le secret de I'agriculture." Till well and manure 
well is the whole secret of agriculture. 



MANURES. 59 

The elementary parts of these manures, as ex- 
hibited in this table, sufficiently indicate the mode 
of preserving them. .When dropped in the fields and 
in small parcels by cattle, they exhibit no signs of 
fermentation, nor undergo, in that state, any degree 
of chymical decomposition ; but, when brought to- 
gether, and frequently wetted and subjected to the 
action of atmospheric air, they are speedily dis- 
solved and give out much gaseous matter. To pre- 
vent the escape of these soluble and volatile parts, 
two things are necessary : 1st, that the dung be col- 
lected in a reservoir of convenient size, and walled 
and paved with stones ; and, 2d, that a layer of sand 
or earth be occasionally spread over the surface of 
the dung. The former will prevent filtration, and 
the latter retain the gaseous matter so useful in 
vegetation, and, at the same time, augment the quan- 
tity of manure. To prevent an excess of moisture, 
which always retards, and sometimes prevents de- 
composition altogether, the reservoir should be 
covered. 

The application of manures is a subject of more 
difliculty, and has given occasion to some dispute. 
The controverted points are, 

1st. Whether short or long dung, or, in other 
words, whether dung thoroughly rotted, or that 
which has but begun to rot, is most advantageous. 

2d. Whether dung used superficially, or ploughed 
deep into the ground, is most profitable. 

3d. Whether extraneous matters admitted into 
the dungheap are useful or otherwise. 

4th. Whether stable manures are best applied di- 
rectly or indirectly to wheat crops. 

5th. At what time manures are best applied ; and, 

6th. In what quantity. 

We shall discuss these points separately and 
briefly; and, 

1st. Which is to be preferred, long or short dung ? 

The discordance in practice, as well as in opinion, 



60 AGRICULTURE. 

prevailing on this question, induced some scientific 
men to institute a series of experiments, having for 
their object a full and regular solution of it. With 
this view, parcels of dung (lorig and short) were 
taken from the same stables on the same day, and 
applied to crops of the same kind growing on the 
same fields. The result perfectly conformed to the- 
ory, and was similar in all the experiments. Those 
parts of the field to which the short dung was ap- 
plied gave the best crops the first year ; but those 
on which the long dung had been laid gave the best 
crops the second and third years ; a fact which au- 
thorizes the conclusion, that, if we wish to obtain 
one great crop, the rotted dung is best ; but when 
we look to more permanent improvement, the long 
dung is to be preferred. 

2d. Which is the better practice, to spread ma- 
nure on the surface, or lay it deeply under the 
ground 1 

In favour of the former practice it has been con- 
tended, that the distribution of the dung could be 
more equally made on the surface with a spade than 
under ground with a plough ;* and for the latter, 
that all tap-rooted plants, entering far into the 
earth, require it to be laid deep ; while those with 
fibrous roots will be sufficiently benefited by its 
exhalations. Both modes, however, are obviously 
bad. We have seen in the preceding article that 
dung, to become the aliment of plants, must under- 
go a decomposition ; and that, to the production of 
this, the combined action of air and water is indis- 
pensable. But, if the manure be buried deeply, this 
action cannot reach it, and the dung remains a ca- 
put mortuum. On the other hand, if spread super- 

* The English are said to have a machine attached to the 
drill that goes before and distributes the manure at the neces- 
sary depth. In planting potatoes we make a bed of dung foi 
the plant. Why not apply the same reasoning and the same 
practice to all seeding of the ground ? 



MANURES. 61 

ficially, the rains dissolve and carry away many of 
its juices, while the sun and the wind evaporate the 
rest. These considerations lead to the true rule on 
this head, which is to lay it three or four inches be- 
low the surface of the soil. At this depth, if short 
dung, its action will be most vigorous in all direc- 
tions ; and if long dung, a greater depth will, as al- 
ready suggested, completely destroy all action. 

3d. Are extraneous matters, as horns, hoofs, 
bones, shells, feathers, leaves, weeds, &c., &c., to 
be admitted into the dung*-heap ? 

There is, perhaps, nothing in either theory or 
practice so obviously right, that it may not be dis- 
puted. The principal objection made to these mat- 
ters is, that they do not decompose equally ; and 
that those ingredients of the heap which are slow- 
est in decomposition, retard others, which, if left to 
themselves, would be more forward in this process. 
This objection is without weight ; for we have seen 
that long or unrotted manure, though its effect be 
prompt, is, upon the whole, more favourable to cul- 
ture than that which is rotted. The difference of 
time in decomposition is therefore no evil, and the 
augmentation of the mass is a great good; besides 
that, some of these offals are the most powerful 
manures. Horns and hoofs are compounded of al- 
bumen and gelatine ; bones, of the phosphate and 
carbonate of lime and gelatine; shells, of carbonate 
of lime and animal matter ; and feathers and hair, 
of albumen, oil, &c., &c. Applied to the roots, they 
forward the growth of fruit-trees more than any 
other species of manure. 

4th. Whether stable manures are best applied, 
directly or indirectly, to wheat crops ? 

The practice, on this head, is different in different 
places. In France, as in all other countries where 
fallows are in use, the dung is applied directly to 
the wheat crop ; while in England, where the rota- 
tion system is established, it is applied to the sum- 



62 AGRICULTURE. 

mer crop, which immediately precedes that of the 
wheat. 

The objection to the French practice is, that the 
weeds brought into the field by the manure start 
with the grain, and do as much harm as the dung 
does good. Nor is there any sufficient answer, that 
I know of, to this objection. The English practice 
is, therefore, much to be preferred ; because, besides 
the advantage of exchanging d. fallow for a summer 
crop, it permits -you, while that crop is growing, to 
destroy the weeds that otherwise would have infest- 
ed your fields. 

5th. At what time of the year are manures best 
applied ] 

The most approved rule on this head is to apply 
the winter dung wholly to potatoes, flax, and corn ; 
that of the spring, to cabbages and beans ; and what 
may be afterward collected, to turnips ; and, 

6th. In what quantity ought we to apply them 1 

The quantum of manure to be applied to the acre 
must necessarily depend on the staple of the soil. 
If entirely exhausted of vegetable mould, a great 
deal will not be too much ; but there is a possibility 
of erring in this respect, even with regard to poor 
soils. Where an excess of manure exists, the crop, 
whatever it be, runs into stalk and leaf, and the 
eff'ect on the flavour of the vegetable is bad ; a fact 
which the experience of all who have tasted the 
cabbages and turnips raised in the poudrette of Paris 
and London can abundantly establish. Even mead- 
ows, which are least liable to injuries in this way, 
may be too much dunged. What cultivator of ob- 
servation has not seen his cattle turn with disgust 
from herbage the most luxuriant in appearance, but 
growing out of masses of manure 1 This circum- 
stance suggests the advantage of going over our 
meadows in the fall, and breaking up and distribu- 
ting such lumps of dung as may be found in them. 

The preceding remarks were confined to stable 



MANURES. 63 

manures. What remains to be said applies to lime, 
marl, vegetable ashes, ashes of earth, and green 
crops ploughed into the ground. 

It will be remembered that the action of lime, as 
a manure, is owing to its causticity, or power of 
dissolving animal and vegetable substances ; and to 
its quality of absorbing enUonic acid from the at- 
mosphere. These properties render it peculiarly- 
useful in composts, or mixtures of dung, peat, and 
earth; a mass of which, disposed in alternate lay- 
ers, is no doubt the perfection of this branch of 
husbandry.* It is also applied without any acces- 
sary, and with great advantage, to marshy grounds ;t 
to those having in them the remains of shellfish ;| 
to natural meadows, and to all soils abounding in 
vegetable mould. On those of a different character 
it must be cautiously used as to quantity, and, in- 
deed, on any soil, an excess of it will completely 
destroy the fertihzing principle ; an effect constant- 
ly observed near mortar beds. 

The time of using it is liable to less uncertainty. 
On wheat it should be sown as soon as the grain 
shows itself, and on meadows late in the fall, and 
after the cattle have been turned off, *" 

Marl, being a compound of clay and lime, has the 
properties of the latter, and produces similar effects, 
but in a smaller degree. Hence it is that the quan- 
tity of it given to the acre is much greater than 
that of lime. The English practice is to spread it 
over a field to the depth of three or four inches. 
This is done late in the fall, to the end that frost 
and rain may break down and pulverize it. 

The properties of rt^/^e^, whether derived from the 
combustion of animals, of vegetables, or of fossil 

* These might be formed in narrow lintals, inclining from 
the stable. 

t After they have been drained. 

j There is much of this description oJ land on the bays and 
creeks of the Chesapeake. 



64 AGRICULTURE. 

coal, are nearly the same, and r^^omble those of 
lime and marl. They powerfully attract and hold 
moisture and carbonic acid, and they hasten the de- 
composition of stable manures, or other vegetable 
or animal product. Their action is most favourable 
on wet and cold soils, and as a top-dressing to nat- 
ural meadows and turnip crops. 

The practice of paring and burning the surface of 
the earth has been much used, and warmly recom- 
mended by the Irish ; and in their land of bogs, as 
in the marshes of Holland, where infertility arises 
from excess of vegetable matter, it may be useful ; 
but to burn the surfaces of sandy, gravelly, or even 
of dry clay soils, would be to lose sight of all sound 
theory. 

Soils in general may be divided into two kinds, 
sand and clay. The defect of the one is want of 
cohesion between its parts ; that of the other, an 
excessive or superabundant cohesion. But vegeta- 
ble matter is, as we have seen, a remedy for both ; 
and to accumulate this is the constant endeavour of 
every enhghtened agriculturist. Yet are we advi- 
sed to destroy this vegetable matter by fire, and to 
substitute for it a small portion of ashes, as more 
favourable to vegetation than the soil itself! But 
in what will these ashes differ from those found in 
our chimneys, and of which enough may be had T 
In nothing, excepting that they may possess some- 
what more alkaline salt;* a circumstance which, if 
the subsoil be not charged with oily and animal mat- 
ter, will be more injurious than useful. 

* De Saussure's experiments prove, that the stems of trees 
(other things being equal) produce less of this salt than the 
branches, the branches less than the twigs, and the twigs less 
than the leaves. M. Perthuys has formed a table of the relative 
alkaline products of plants and trees. By this table it appears 
that the leaves and stems of Indian corn give to the quintal eight 
pounds thirteen ounces, those of oak one pound five ounces, and 
those of pine five ounces. 



MANURES. 65 

But, besides the consideration of getting so lit- 
tle, and that little of such equivocal character and 
use, what do we lose by the process ? If we ap- 
proach these little kilns, we find them emitting a 
black smoke, which cannot be entirely consumed ; 
and our eyes and noses are assailed by some stim- 
ulating and ammoniacal matter, M^hich is fast es- 
caping, and which so far alters the atmospheric 
air in the neighbourhood as to render it difficult of 
respiration. Need we add that this is the animal, 
oily, and gaseous matter essential to the vegetable, 
and highly important to vegetation? It may be 
that the ashes obtained may give one or two good 
crops of turnips; but even the advocates of this 
practice admit that, " it ruins the land for an age ; 
and hence it is that in England, tenants are restrain- 
ed from paring and burning, especially/ towards the 
close of their lease.''''* 

Clay burning is a different operation, and made 
with different views ; not for the production of ash- 
es or salts, which may operate chymically, but 
merely (by the application of heat) to alter the tex- 
ture of the soil ; to give to it an artificial division 
and porosity ; to render what was cold warm, what 
was wet dry, and what was compact granular. 
But a small degree of heat will not produce these 
effects ; for, unlike the stems and roots of plants, 
clay is not itself combustible ; and, to bring it to the 
brick state, the heat applied must be long, contin- 
ued, and great : hence it follows, that the practice 
becomes objectionable on the score of expense, and 
the more so as burned clay has no possible advan- 
tage over the much cheaper substances of sand, 
gravel, and pounded limestone. The operation of 
all is merely mechanical, and exactly in proportion 
to the quantity used. 

Our partiaHty for green crops ploughed into the 

* See Cobbett, part second, p. 168, " Year's Residence in the 
United States.'' 



66 AGRICULTURE. 

ground as manure has been sufficiently indicated, 
and it is now only necessary that we mention the 
plants best calculated for this purpose. At the head 
of these we place buckwheat, as well on account of 
cheapness as effect : cheapness, because the price of 
the seed, which is the only additional expense, is 
below consideration ; and effect, because this plant, 
while growing, is, from its umbrageous form, a 
great improver of the soil, both by stifling weeds 
and preventing evaporation ; and, when ploughed 
into the ground, none decomposes more rapidly, 
nor has any a more powerful effect in keeping the 
earth loose and open to the action of light, heat, 
air, and moisture, all of which are indispensable to 
vegetation. " I know no plant," says Rozier, the 
great French agriculturist, " that furnishes a better 
manure, or which is sooner reduced to vegetable 
mould, than buckwheat." When cultivated with 
this view, the usual quantity of seed ought to be in- 
creased, and the time of sowing hastened, so as to 
enable you to have two crops of manure the same 
season, and before the sowing of wheat. 

The lupine (one of the leguminous family) has 
been long and profitably employed as a manure in 
Spain, Italy, and the southern province of France. 
Columella directs that " it be sown in September, 
about the equinox, so that it may attain, before 
winter, a growth that will enable it to resist wet and 
frosty weather, which it particularly dreads." I 
need not remark that these directions are not cal- 
culated for this climate, and that the seed-time foi 
the lupine here is the 20th of May. The properties 
which recommend it as a manure are nearly the 
same as those which belong to buckwheat. It is a 
quick grower, and has numerous, large, and succu- 
lent leaves. While growing it subsists principally 
upon the air, and, when buried, decomposes entirely 
and rapidly. 
The pea tribe has the next place in this list ; but. 



TILLAGE. fi7 

though not better adapted to the end than buck- 
wheat or lupine, it is more capricious than they, and 
requires a soil of better staple and more prepara- 
tion. The seed is also more expensive. Of this 
tribe the yellow vetching (lathyrus pratensis) is the 
species to be preferred. 

Turnips have been cultivated in England with the 
same view, but the practice has yielded to another 
and better (which, however, is not suited to our 
climate), feeding them off in the winter and on, tht 
field. 



CHAPTER VII. 

OP TILLAGE, AND THE PRINCIPLES ON WHICH IT IS 
FOUNDED. 

Tillage has three objects : 1st, the raising of 
plants, whose seeds, stems, or roots may be neces- 
sary or useful to man and the animals he employs ; 
2d, the improvement of the soil, by laying it open 
to those atmospheric influences which increase its 
fertility ; and, 3d, its destruction of weeds or plants 
which rise spontaneously, and are either altogether 
unfit, or fit only in a small degree, for the nutrition 
of men and cattle, and which, if left to themselves, 
would stifle or starve the intended crop. 

In fulfilling either or all of these objects, it is evi- 
dent that the surface of the earth must be broken 
and divided into small parts, so that it may furnish 
a bed and covering for the seeds sown, enable the 
plants to push their roots into the soil, and draw 
from it a portion of their subsistence. 

To accomplish this leading intention, the division 
of the soil, various means have been employed. Fos- 



68 AGRICULTURE. 

sil, animal, and vegetable manures, as well by their 
mechanical action as by their chymical properties, 
promote it; as do sand, pounded limestone, and 
water, as in the culture of the rice ; but it is to the 
spade and the plough we must look for that degree 
of efficiency, without which the earth would have 
remained a desert, or would become one. Of these, 
where the scale of labour is small, as in garden cul- 
ture, the former is to be preferred ; but, in farm- 
ing, the greater expedition of the latter gives it a 
decided advantage. Our remarks, therefore, will be 
confined to the operations of this instrument ; and 
particularly to such as have given occasion to dif- 
ferences in opinion among practical farmers. 

1st. At what season of the year, spring, summer, or 
fall, is ploughing best performed, in relation to division 
and improvement of the soil, and the destruction of 
weeds ? 

The more scientific opinion is in favour o( fall 
ploughing ; because to the action of air alid moist- 
ure it adds that of frost, whose septic or dividing 
quality is second only to that of the plough itself. 
In clay soils this preparation should never be omit- 
ted ; because on those the action of frost is great- 
est, and because one ploughing of this kind may 
save two in the spring, when time is everything.* 
In this operation, however, we must not forget to 
ridge as well as plough; and care must be taken 
that our furrows have sufficient declination to car- 
ry off surplus water. With these precautions, clay 
ground will be ready early in the spring for another 
ploughing ; and the decomposition of the sod and 
weeds turned down in the fall will be nearly, if 
not altogether, complete.! 

* The marsh bean grows best on a fall ploughing ; and oats, 
well harrowed, will, on such ploughing, give a good crop with- 
out other culture. 

t Without water there is no decomposition, and much watei 
checks and prevents it. 



TILLAGE. 69 

In dry and warm soils these advantages are less ; 
but still the time gained for spring work is a suffi- 
cient inducement to a practice that economizes, not 
merely labour, but the productive powers of the 
earth also, by soonest enabling us to shade the soil 
with a growing crop.* 

2d. What number of ploughings, preparatory to a 
crop, is necessary or proper ? 

The Romans were in the practice of multiplied 
ploughings. This appears as well from the precepts 
of Cato as from the opinion of Columella, that " til- 
lage, which does not leave the earth in a state of 
dust and render the use of harrows unnecessary, 
has not been well performed." Tull and his disci- 
ples carry the doctrine still farther, and believe that 
frequent ploughings enable us to dispense with even 
the use of manures. This, however, is extravagant : 
it is certain that the plough can do much, but it is 
equally certain that there is much it cannot do. 

Agriculture, like other business having profit for 
it^ object, is a subject of calculation ; its labour must 
be regulated by its end ; and the moment the expense 
of this transcends the profit, it may be improvement, 
but it ceases to be farming. When, therefore, we 
hear of six ploughings preparatory to a wheat crop, 
we conclude either that the plough will soon stop, 
or that it belongs to one of the dilettanti, who thinks 
it beneath him to count the cost. In our own prac- 
tice, we find that spring crops of the cereal gramina 
succeed best on one fall ploughing, well ridged and 
furrowed, and with one cross-ploughing in the 
spring; and that spring and summer crops of the 

* Those who have any doubts about the importance of shade, 
have but to look at the effects of a brush-heap, or other collec- 
tion of small bodies admitting air, heat, and moisture, during 
the spring or summer months. Under such collections he will 
find a much more vigorous vegetation than in the uncovered 
parts of the field : the cause of this effect is that the brush pre 
vents evaporation. 



70 AGRICULTURE. 

leguminous and cruciform families form the best 
possible preparation for winter crops, and render 
unnecessary more than one additional ploughing. 
After all, any proper answer to this question must 
necessarily be qualified by considerations of soil, 
weather, season, crop, and culture ; influences which 
cannot but exist in all cases, and over which we 
have no control. Wheat, for instance, requires 
more preparatory ploughing than rye, and rye more 
than oats. Clay ground demands more tillage than 
calcareous earth, and calcareous earth more than 
sand. Wet or dry weather makes frequent plough- 
ings, according to circumstances, either useful, in- 
jurious, or impracticable ; and the shade of a horse- 
hoed crop is, perhaps, in itself, of more importance 
to that which succeeds, than would be the fallowing 
of a whole summer. 

3d. What depth of ploughing is most to be recom- 
mended ? 

This question, though less complicated than the 
last, requires, like it, an answer qualified by circum- 
stances. Tap-rooted plants require deeper tillage 
than others : fall ploughings may be deeper than 
those of spring, and spring than those of summer. 
If the vegetable soil be deep, deep ploughings will 
not injure it; but if it be shallow, such ploughings 
will bring up part of the subsoil, which is always 
infertile, until it receive new principles from the atmo- 
sphere. " They who pretend," says Arthur Young, 
" that the underlayer of earth is as proper for ve- 
getation as the upper, maintain a paradox, refuted 
both by reason and' experience." 

Where, however, it becomes part of your object 
to increase the depth of the surface soil, deep 
ploughing is indispensable ; and in this, as in many 
other cases, we must submit to present inconve- 
nience for the advantage of future benefit. But even 
here it is laid down as a rule, that, " in proportion as 



TILLAGE. 71 

you deepen your ploughings, you increase the necessity 
for manures y* 

" From six to eight inches may be taken as the 
ordinary depth of sufficient ploughing,"! And, 

4th. Of the different modes of ploughing {level 01 
ridge ploughing)^ which is to be preferred? 

This question admits no absolute answer. We 
have already suggested the use of the latter mode ' 
in stiff, heavy, wet clays ; and, in our opinion, all 
ground in v/hich clay predominates, whatever be 
the culture, should be made to take this form: be- 
cause it powerfully tends to drain the soil, and car- 
ry off from the roots of the growing plants that su- 
perfluous water, which, left to itself, would seri- 
ously affect both the quality and the quantity of 
their products. | In sandy, porous, and dry soils, 
on the other hand, level ploughing is to be prefer- 
red ; because ridging such soils would but increase 
that want of cohesion which is their natural defect. 

A loamy soil, which is a medium between these 
two extremes, ought, in a dry climate, to be culti- 
vated in the^a^ way, that it may the better retain 
moisture ; and in a wet climate, in ridges, that it 
may the sooner become dry. 

* Young. t Idem. 

t It has been objected to ridge ploughing that it accumulates 
the good soil on the crowns of ridges, and impoverishes the 
sides and furrows. These objections are obviated by narrow 
and low ridges, which alternate every orop with the furrows. 



72 AGRICULTURE. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

OP A ROTATION OF CROPS, AND THE PRINCIPLIS OH 
WHICH IT IS FOUNDED. 

To this branch of our subject we invite particu- 
lar attention; because, in our opinion, it forms the 
basis of all successful agriculture. Whatever pains 
we take, whatever expenses we incur, in collecting 
instruments of husbandry, in accumulating and ap- 
plying manures, and in tilling the earth, all is to 
little purpose, unless to these we superadd a succes- 
sion of [crops, adapted to the nature of the soil, to the 
laws of the climate, and to the physical character and 
commercial value of the article raised. Pease will 
vegetate on wet cotton, and wheat in pure sand ; 
Indian corn will grow in high northern latitudes, 
and the apple may be found near the equator. We 
have seen sainfoin struggling in wet clay, and aquat- 
ic plants on the top of an arid mountain ; but all 
indicated the violence done to nature, and present- 
ed only specimens diminutive in bulk and deficient 
in quality. The influence of markets on the value 
of produce is as little to be denied as that of soil 
and climate. In the neighbourhood of great cities 
table vegetables are of much more value than wheat 
or rye ; but, remote from markets, wheat and rye 
have the advantage, because, being more valuable in 
proportion to bulk and weight, they bear better the 
expense of transportation. 

With this general view of the subject, we pro- 
ceed to examine, 1st, the practice of Europe ; and, 
2d, the rotation best adapted to our own soil, merid- 
ian, and markets. And, 

1st. Of the practice of Europe. 



ROTATION OF CROPS. 73 

It was long since discovered* that the soil, when 
left to itself, was never either exhausted, or tired, 
or idle ; but that, however stripped or denuded by 
man and the animals he employs, it hastens to cover 
Itself with a variety of plants, of different and even 
opposite characters ; that some of these have a ten- 
dency to render the earth more compact, while 
others have the effect of opening and dividing it ; 
that some, from peculiar structure of roots, stems, 
and leaves, derive most of their nourishment from 
the earth ; while others, differently formed, draw it 
principally from the atmosphere ; and, lastly, that 
in these voluntary products there is a continual 
and nearly regular succession of plants differently 
organized. These observations, carefully made and 
no longer doubted, and others leading to the same 
or similar conclusions, first suggested the useful- 
ness of taking nature as our guide, and of conform- 
ing our artificial crops to the rules which obviously 
governed her spontaneous productions. The effect 
was such as was expected, and for more than half 
a century the rotation system has formed the true 
test of agricultural improvement in every variety 
of soil and climate. Whenever it has been adopt-* 
ed, the art is found in a state of prosperous progres- 
sion; whenever neglected or rejected, it is either 
stationary or retrogade. Yet, in the face of a fact, 
carrying with it such conclusive evidence, the bulk 
of agriculturists continue to resist this cheap and 
obvious means of improvement, and pertinaciously 
adhere to a system (that of fallows) which con- 
demns to annual sterility one fourth part of the 
earth ; and which prefers four months' unproductive 
labour to abundant harvests and nutritious crops ! 

* Virgil, who was a philosopher as well as a poet, appears to 
liave thoroughly understood this branch of natural history : 
" mutatis quiescuni fcetibics arva." The true repose of the earth 
is in a change of its productions. 



74 AGRICULTURE. 

But from this display of folly let us iurn to one of 
wisdom. 

On the rotation system, the whole arable part of 
a farm is divided into four, six, or eight fields, and 
subjected to a course of crops denominated, accord- 
ing to the number of these divisions, the short, the 
medium, or the long course. In constructing these 
courses, however, whether long, middling, or short, 
the utmost attention is paid to the nature of the 
soil, viz., in all soils more wet than dry, more com- 
pact than porous, more hard than friable, the course^ 
is made up of the following plants : Wheal, oats, 
buckwheat, the graminal grasses, beans, vetchlings, 
clover, cabbages, and chicory. In soils of an oppo- 
site character, dry, porous, and friable, the plants 
from which to choose are ri/e, spelts, barley, pota- 
toes, turnips,* lupines, Indian corn, clover, sainfoin, and 
many of the pasture grasses. In loams, which are 
nearly an equal mixture of sand, clay, and decom- 
posed vegetables, the choice of plants is much en- 
larged ; embracing what is more pecuharly proper 
for both sand and clay, and having, besides, the fol- 
lowing plants from which to select : Rice, millet, 
sorghum, or African millet, lucerne, indigo, cotton, 
hops, tobacco, madder, hemp, jiax, &c., &c. The fol- 
lowing cases will sufficiently illustrate the princi- 
ples on which they rest, viz., Never to select for a 
crop plants not adapted to the soil ; and never, in any 
soil, to permit two crops of the same species or kinds to 
follow each other. 

2d. Of the rotation best adapted to our own soil, 
meridian, and markets. 

Previously to entering upon this subject, it may 
not be amiss to glance at the practice hitherto prev- 

* We here speak of the white turnip. The Ruta Baga, or 
Swedish turnip, is classed by French agriculturists among the 
products of strong, substantial clay soils. In the next chapter 
we shall speak of the culture of some particular plants, and 
among these, of the Swedish turnip. 



ROTATION OF CROPS. 75 

aleiit among us. What this was in 1801 may be 
seen in the answer of an English gentleman and 
traveller (Mr. Strickland) to certain queries of the 
British Board of Agriculture in relation to the state 
of husbandry here. After remarking that New- 
England was not a coim country^ and had little to do 
with the plough, and that New- York was then, and 
would continue to be, the granary of America, he 
proceeds to divert his British readers with the fol- 
lowing details : " The usual course of crops in this 
state (New- York), is, first year, maize (Indian 
corn) ; second, rye or wheat ; third, flax or oats ; and 
then a repetition of the same as long as the land 
will bear anything ; after which it is laid by to rest. 
A Dutchman's course on the Mohawk is, first year, 
wheat ; second, pease ; third, wheat ; fourth, oats or 
flax ; and, fifth, Indian corn. In Dutchess county 
the rotation is, first, wheat ; second and third, pas- 
ture without seed; and, foureii, Indian corn, or flax, 
or oats, or mixed crops." Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
Delaware, andJMaryland may be classed together, 
from a resemblance of climate, soil, and mode of 
culture ; and here we have, " first year, Indian corn ; 
second, wheat ; third and fourth, rubbish pasture. 
Clover is, however, beginning to be introduced in. 
some such course as the following: First, wheat- 
second, Indian corn ; third, wheat ; fourth and fifth, 
clover." 

Two exceptions are noticed, however, to this 
system : 1st. In the German settlements in Penn- 
sylvania, where, from more attention or more skill, 
" the wheat crop averages eighteen bushels to the 
acre, where twenty-Jive bushels are frequent, and 
instances of ^Afriy not wanting: and, 2d. In the pen- 
insula of Maryland and Delaware, where the rota- 
tion of Indian corn, wheat, and rubbish pasture has 
reduced the average produce to six bushels per 
acre ; in some instances not more than two bushels 
are obtained, and much is so had as to he ploughed up 
again.^^ 



76 AGRICULTURE. 

" In Virginia the usual crops are Inciun corn and 
wheat alternately, as long as the land will produce 
them ; and, in parts where tobacco is cultivated, 
several crops of it are taken in succession, before 
any grain is sown. No one states the average of 
that extensive flat country in Virginia, lying below 
the head of tide- water, at more than five or six 
bushels ; and in those fertile and beautiful valleys 
among the mountains, in which ignorant cultivators 
have not yet resided sufficiently long to have en- 
tirely exhausted the soil, the produce may not be 
less than twelve bushels the acre." 

These specimens of agricultural skill will not be 
adduced as proof of the favourite national position, 
that " we are the most enlightened people on the face 
of the globe ,-" and the less so, as a lapse of eighteen 
years has not entirely weaned us from ancient 
habits ; for neither on the Maryland peninsula, nor 
in Eastern Virginia, is there any material alteration 
in their mode of culture, excepting what may have 
arisen from the fact that, having no more fresh land 
to exhaust, they are now obliged to recur to old fields 
and are, of course, annually suffering the new and 
increased penalties of former improvidence. On 
the western shore of Maryland, in the northern 
parts of Delaware, and in Pennsylvania, New-Jer- 
sey, and New-York, the state of things is better ; 
clover has been substituted for (what Mr. Strickland 
calls) rubbish pasture, and the root husbandry is 
encroaching on summer fallows ; which we regard 
as a decisive step towards a regular and judicious 
rotation of crops. 

After this brief statement of the past and present 
state of home agriculture, let us anticipate the fu- 
ture. We cannot believe that, favoured as we arc 
with a temperate climate, a productive soil, an in- 
quiring, reflecting, and independent yeomanry, and 
civil institutions which favour and protect all the 
developments of industry and genius, we shall long 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. 77 

teraain behind the serfs of Tuscany, the tenants of 
England, or the peasants of Flanders. But, to rival 
these, we must follow their example ; we must mul- 
tiply the means of subsisting cattle ; because these 
will, in their turn, give manures, and manures will 
quicken and invigorate the soil for the production 
of articles of the greatest value and the highest 
price. It is on this simple basis that we offer the 
following tables of rotation of crops, adapted to our 
own circumstances : 

Medium course in sandy soils : 1st year, potatoes 
dunged; 2d, rye, with turnips after harvest consu- 
med on the fields ; 3d, oats and clover, or barley 
arid clover ; 4th, clover ; 5th, wheat, with turnips 
after harvest consumed on the field ; and, 6th, pease, 
or lupines, or lentils. We have, by this course, 
eight crops in six years, and five of these ameliora- 
ting crops. 

Medium course in loamy soils : 1st year, pota- 
toes dunged ; 2d, wheat, with turnips as in the pre- 
ceding course ; 3d, Indian corn and pumpkins; 4th, 
barley and clover ; 5th, clover ; 6th, wheat and tur- 
nips as before. In this course we have nine crops 
in six years, five of which are ameliorating crops. 

Medium course in clay soils ; 1st year, oats with 
clover ; 2d, clover ; 3d, wheat ; 4th, beans dunged ; 
6th, wheat ; 6th, the yellow vetghling. 



CHAPTER IX. 

OF THE PLANTS RECOMMENDED FOR A COURSE OF CROPS 
IN THE PRECEDING CHAPTER, AND THEIR CULTURE. 

These are wheat, rye, barley, Indian corn, oats, 
buckwheat, pease, beans, turnips, potatoes, cabba- 



78 AGRICULTURE. 

ges, clover, and chicory : but we shall take them in 
the order in which they stand in the proposed rota- 
tion of crops ; and, 

I. Of the potato. 

This plant is a native of America, and, like other 
valuable things, has had violent enemies and zealous 
friends. When first introduced into France, it was 
subjected to the imperfect methods of analysis of 
that day, and, being supposed to yield some delete- 
rious matter, was even proscribed by the govern- 
ment But time, which rarely fails to do justice to 
the injured, has re-established the character of the 
potato there ; and with the increased reputation 
of being the " manna of the poor,''''* of standing as an 
article of food next to bread,! ^^^ f^r before cab- 
bages, carrots, or turnips ;J and yielding, by the 
acre, a crop of greater profit and more nutritive 
matter than either wheat or barley.^ Nor is this 
its whole praise ; for, besides its value as food, it is 
of all vegetables that which, from the number, 
shape, and size of its roots, forms the best prepara- 
tion for subsequent crops. || Of this valuable plant 
botanists count more than sixty varieties and twelve 
species, which, for agricultural purposes, may, how- 
ever, be reduced to three; the red, the white, and 
that called by the French the guarantaine, or forty 
days' potato. The last is the least prolific; but 

* Dictionnaire de I'Industrie, art. Pomme de terre. 

t By the experiments of Vaugelin and Pefcy, 80 parts out of 
100 of bread are nutritive ; of the potato, 25, or nearly one 
fourth. 

t " Six chilogrammes de pommes de terre equivaloient 50 
chilogrammes de navet." — Yvart. Six kilograms [the kilo- 
gram is 2 lbs. 3 oz. 5 dr. avoird.] of potatoes are equal to 50 kil 
ograms of carrots. 

^ 200 bushels, a medium crop per acre of potatoes, are, at 3s 
per bushel, equal to seventy five dollars ; and a medium crop* 
of wheat, 15 bushels per acre, at even 16s. per bushel, is but 
30 dollars ; difference per acre, $35. 

II Parmentier of the French Institute. 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. 79 

may, notwithstanding, deserve the preference with 
cultivators near great cities, since, besides being the 
first in the market, they may be made to give a 
second crop. The other two are supposed to affect 
different kinds of soil ; the red preferring clay, and 
the white sand or loam. Of the former there is a 
variety more productive than any other of either 
species, and which is known, and, we think, de- 
graded, by the name of the hog potato. Of this 
variety, without any peculiar care, we have raised 
one hundred and eight bushels on one quarter of 
an acre. 

Two ways are employed to propagate the pota- 
to ; 1st, by sowing the seed ; and, 2d, by planting 
the root. By the former method we obtain new 
varieties or revive old ones ; but, as it requires three 
years to bring these to perfection, it follows that the 
other method, which continues the species you 
plant, and in the perfection in which you plant them, 
is alone resorted to for a crop. The product is 
small, or great, or enormous, according to the fer- 
tility of the soil and the labour bestowed upon its 
cultivation. We have never seen a larger product 
from the acre than four hundred bushels ; but there 
are records of high authority which give much 
larger crops ; and from which, in justice to our sub- 
ject, we offer the following extracts : 

" At Altingham, in England, a sandy soil gave 
700 bushels per acre. At Kirklatham, a similar soil 
gave 580 bushels ; and a blach rich loam, 11G6 
bu>hels."* 

We need hardly remark, that such immense pro- 
ducts were procured only by the most careful and 
well-timed cultivation, which we shall now proceed 

* See vol. xiii., p. 114, of the British Annual Register. Some 
persons have imagined that, by cutting the flowers of the potato, 
the crop may be increased, and analogy forms the opinion. The 
procreative powers of the plant are thus diverted from the ap- 
ple and concentrated m the bulb. 



80 AGRICULTURE. 

to indicate under three different heads : 1st, the 
preparation of the soil ; 2d, the choice of plants and 
mode of planting ; and, lastly, the treatment of the 
growing crop. 

1st. Of the preparation of the soil. 

Give your field intended for potatoes a good fall 
ploughing, and in ridges if the soil be clay. Leave 
it rough and open to the influences of the frost du- 
ring the winter, and as early in the spring as you 
discover in it the marks of vegetation, harrow and 
roll it. When the weeds show themselves a second 
time, carry out your manure, cover the fields with 
it, and plough it under. If the quantity of manure 
be insufficient to cover the whole surface, apply it to 
the furrows only ; and if, as may happen, it be even 
insuflEicient for this purpose, then furrow both ways, 
manure the angles of intersection, and set your po- 
tatoes in them. 

2d. Of the choice of plants and mode of plant- 
ing. 

Some economists begin by paring the potato, 
and planting only the skins ; others, less saving, 
cut the potatoes into slices, leaving a single eye to 
each slice ; and a third class, almost as provident 
as the other two, are careful to pick out the dwarfs, 
and reasonable enough to expect from them a pro- 
geny of giants. These practices cannot be too much 
censured or too soon abandoned, because directly 
opposed both by reason and experience. In other 
cases we take great pains, and sometimes incur 
great expense, to obtain the best seed. In the cul- 
tivation of wheat we reject all small, premature, 
worm-eaten, or otherwise imperfect grains ; in pre- 
paring for a crop of Indian corn we select the best 
cars, and even strip from these the small or ill- sha- 
ped grains at the ends of the cob ; so also in plant- 
ing beets, carrots, parsnips, and turnips, the largest 
and finest are selected for seed. The reason of all 
this is obvious. Plants, like animals, are rendered 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. 81 

most perfect by selecting the finest individuals of 
the species from which to breed. Away, then, with 
such miserable economy ; and, instead of planting 
skins, or slices, or dwarfs, take for seed the best 
and largest potatoes, those having in them the most 
ahment for the young plants;* place them in your 
furrows ten or twelve inches apart, and cover them 
carefully with earth. 

3d. Of the treatment of the growing crop. 

As soon as the potatoes begin to show themselves 
weeds will also appear; a good harrowing will then 
save much future labour, and the injury it does the 
potato will be little or none. In a short time an- 
other weeding will become necessary; but your 
crop having now obtained some inches in height, 
you can no longer safely use the common harrow ; 
but, instead of this, the small one of triangular form, 
so made as to accommodate itself to the width of 
the intervals. This labour may be occasionally re- 
peated, if necessary, until the potatoes begin to 
flower, when the horse-hoe must be substituted for 
the harrovir. The effects of this instrument (the 
horse-hoe) are to extirpate the weeds, to divide and 
loosen the soil, and to throw over the potatoes an 
additional covering of earth. 

The harvesting and preserving of potato crops 
are processes well known in this country. With 
regard to the latter, however, we would suggest 
whether stacking potatoes on the surface of the soil, 
and with a narrow base, is not a better mode than 
burying them in the ground. Fifteen bushels will 
be enough for one stack, which must be well cov- 
ered with straw and earth, and trenched around its 
whole circumference, to carry off dissolving snows 
and rain-water. 

II. Of rye. 

* The interior of the potato forms the fecula, which subsists 
the young plants. 



82 AGRICULTURE. 

This grain, though of the same family with wheat, 
is less valuable. A bushel of rye weighs less, and 
gives less flour, and of worse qunhty, than a bushel 
of wheat. Still there are circumstances which, as 
an object of culture, may give it the preference ; 
1st, it grows well in soils where wheat cannot be 
raised ; 2d, it bears a much greater degree of cold 
than wheat ; 3d, it goes through all the phases of 
vegetation in a shorter period, and, of course, ex- 
hausts the soil less ;* 4th, if sown early in the fall, 
it gives a great deal of pasture, without much even- 
tual injury to the crop; and, 5th, its produce, from 
an equal surface, is one sixth greater than that of 
wheat. These circumstances render it peculiarly 
valuable for poor soils and poor people, for mount- 
ains of great elevation, and for high northern lati- 
tudes.f 

Its use, as food for horses, is known as well in 
this country as in Europe. The grain and straw, 
chopped and mixed, form the principal horsefood 
in Pennsylvania ; and in Germany, the postillions 
are often seen slicing a black and hard rye bread, 
called henpournikel, for their horses ; and the same 
practice prevails in Belgium and Holland. 

Its conversion into whiskey is a use less appro- 
ved by rexison and patriotism. 

The species of this grain cultivated here are two, 
the Hack and the white ; for spring rye, though often 
mistaken for a species, is but a variety produced by- 
time and culture, and restored again to its former 
character and habits by a similar process. J 

♦ We have seen a field bear rye several years in succession 
without manure, and the last crop was much the best. This 
fact is one of those which tend to discredit theory., 

t Without rye the northern part of Russia would be scarcely 
habitable. 

t Spring rye, sown in the fall, will give a tolerable crop ; 
winter rye, sown in the spring, a very bad one : which shows 
that the nature of the plant requires a slow rather than a quick 
vegetation. 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. 83 

According to the course of crops detailed in our 
last chapter, potatoes, in a sandy soil, precede rye. 
The ploughing, harrowing, and manuring given to 
that crop, will therefore make part of the prepara- 
tion necessary for this. After harvesting the pota- 
toes, crossplough the ground, and sow and harrow 
in the rye ; taking care, as in all other cases, that 
the seed be carefully selected and thorougly wash- 
ed in hme-water, as the means best calculated to 
prevent the ergot ; a disease to which it is most lia- 
ble, and which is supposed to be occasioned by too 
great humidity.* 

Rye is not exempt from the attacks of insects, 
but suffers less from them than either wheat or bar- 
ley. Whenever the straw of winter rye becomes 
yellow, shining, or flinty, and circulates no more 
juices, nature gives the signal for harvest, and no 
time should be lost in obeying it. " Cut two days 
too soon rather than one day too late,'''' was among 
the precepts of Cato; which, if adopted here, would 
save much grain, terminate the harvest about the 
10th of July, and give abundant time to turn down 
the stubble and sow the crop next in succession. 

Hi. Turnips. 

These are said to be natives of the seacoast of 
the north of Europe, where they are found growing 
spontaneously. There are eight species and many 
varieties ; but, as they have all the same character 
and uses, and require nearly the same treatment, 
we shall only speak of the white turnip and the 
yellow. 

Two methods of cultivation have been pursued, 
according to the plan either of turning iheni .iown 
as manure, or of consuming them on the field or in 
the stable by sheep or cattle. In the first case, the 
harrow is used instead of the plough ; and, even upon 
light, porous soil, is a pretty good substitute. Th^' 

♦ See Tessier on the Diseases of Plants. 

r 



84 AGRICULTURE. 

seed is sown after the harrow, and too frequently 
left to its own protection. In the other case, the 
plough is first used, and after it the harrow ; a 
method much to be preferred, as the difference of 
3rops will more than pay the difference of labour, 
the only advantage claimed by those who advocate 
and adopt the first method. 

Our own practice is to plough in the stubble, har- 
row the ground lightly, and sow the turnip-seed in. 
the quantity of two pounds to the acre. This al- 
lows something for insects and something for waste. 
When the plants are generally above ground, give 
them a light covering of ashes, which, by quicken- 
ing the growth of the plants and leaching on their 
leaves at the same time, better protects them againsi 
the fly than any other means practicable on a large 
scale with which we are acquainted.* When the 
plants attain the height of four inches, we set the 
horse-hoe to work, running a furrow the whole 
length or breadth of the field, and returning with 
another at the distance of three feet from the for- 
mer, and so continuing the work till the whole is 
laid off into beds of that width. What we lose by 
this method is only the seed buried by the horse- 
hoe; what we gain is the manure created by the 
young plants ploughed in between the beds, and 
the advantage of being able to weed and work those 
left standing for the crop. This part of the labour, 
which immediately follows the horse-hoeing, is ex- 
peditiously performed by two men travelling in the 
furrows, one on each side of a bed, and employing 
themselves in thinning and hand-hoeing the surplus 
plants. These operations of ploughing and weeding 
may be performed a second, and even a third time, 
with advantage. 

* On a small scale, water in which potatoes have been boiled 
is believed to be very useful in protecting cabbage, turnips, and 
other plants from the attacks of the fly. We are in a course 
of experiments which will determine how far this remedy may 
be relied on. 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. 85 

If we determine to plough in the crop as manure, 
we should do it while ihe ground retains a tempera- 
ture favourable to the decomposition of the plants, 
and before the frost has diminished the volume or 
altered their juices. If, on the other hand, we de- 
cide on feeding off the crop on the ground, it is but 
7iecessary to turn in our sheep upon it, under such 
restrictions as will limit their range and prevent 
waste ; and, indeed, that nothing may be lost, hogs 
should be made to fo'/ow the sheep. If, however, 
feeding in the stables be thought more advisable 
(and it certainly better economizes both food and 
manure), the turnips should be drawn, topped, and 
stacked ; interposing between each layer of them 
one of coarse hay or other barn-rubbish, and cap- 
ping the whole with a few bundles of clean long 
straw. Though less nutritive than either potatoes, 
carrots, or cabbages, the turnip is found to be par- 
ticularly useful to stall-fed cattle, correcting, by its 
aqueous qualities, the heating effects of corn, oats, 
or rye meal. 

Our acquaintance with the yellow turnip (or ruta 
baga) is but beginning. Mr. Cobbett's experiments 
have, however, been very successful, and tend 
much to recommend the plant in preference to the 
vi^hite or common species. That, of the two, it is 
the more compact, the heavier, the more nutritious, 
the less apt to become stringy, and the more easily 
preserved, are facts not to be contested. In both 
France and England it is rising in reputation, and 
perhaps only wants time to get into general use 
here. To this article we will but add an extract 
from the work of M. D'Edelcrants (of Sweden) on 
the ruta baga. 

" Its root is milder and more saccharine than 
that of the other species, particularly when boiled. 
Its flesh is harder and more consistent ; which bet- 
ter enables it to withstand frosts, and to keep from 
«ne year to another. Its leaves extend horizon« 



86 AGRICULTURE. 

* 

tally, and may be stripped off from time to time, as 
wanted for forage, without injuring the product of 
the root ; which, on good soil, gives to the acre, in 
Sweden, 350 quintals ; and, even on poor soil, a 
good crop. We sow half a pound of seed about 
the beginning or middle of May, which will give 
plants enough to fill an acre. Transplanting is 
performed about the last of June or first of July. 
To set out and water 5 or 600 feet in a day is the 
task of one man or of two women. One or two 
hoeings augment the product much. The harvest 
is made about the first of November, and the tur 
nips are covered in ditches, or dry caves or cellars 
for winter use." 

IV. Of Barley. 

It is probable that bread was first made from this 
grain. The Jewish scriptures speak only of barley 
loaves; the gladiators among the Greeks were call- 
ed harley-eaiers ; and Columella says (like our In- 
dian corn and beans in the Southern states) that 
barley was the food of the slaves. Among the Ro- 
mans it was first employed as a food for man, and 
afterward for cattle.* The same qualities which 
recommended it then, have since diff*used it more 
generally than any other grain ; it is found to 
be better adapted to diff'erent soils and climates ; 
less subject to the attacks of insects, and more 
easily preserved. In times of scarcity it is a good 
substitute for wheat, and at all times yields the 
beverage known under the name of beer, ale, or 
porter. It is, besides, a food on which cattle do 
well, and horses arrive at their greatest possible 
perfection. I 

The species of this grain most in request are two 
Kordeum Distichum (two-rowed barley) and Hor- 



* This use grew out of the belief of its nutritive and invigoi' 
ating qualities. 
t See Buflfon on the horse t)f Arabia. Vol. xxii., p. 195. 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. 87 

deum Caeleste (naked barley). The former is pre- 
ferred in England, and, as we believe, in France. 
M. Parmentier ascribes to it all the good qualities of 
the other species, and much greater productiveness.* 
Of the latter species, the nations of the north vi^ho 
are most in the habit of using barley as the basis 
both of food and drink, speak highly. f But among 
us, who cultivate it only for the last purpose, this 
species has less credit, and is even considered the 
worst from a belief that, after being dried, it malts 
imperfectly or with difficulty. 

Though not so nice in relation to soil as either 
wheat or rye, still barley prefers a loose, warm, and 
moist, though not wet, soil, and 'even grows re- 
markably well in sand (where we have sowed it), in 
succession to turnips, either ploughed into the 
ground or consumed on the field. 

Other things being equal, the spring crops which 
are first sowed give the best and largest products. 
The moment, therefore, that your soil is sufficient- 
ly dry, begin ploughing, and at a depth not less than 
six inches, since the roots of barley enter the 
earth more deeply than those of any of the other 
cereal graminse. If the soil be well pulverized [as 
it ought to be after turnips], a second ploughing 
would be a waste of time and money :% proceed, 
therefore, to sow your barley broadcast,^ and cov- 

* He states it to be double as much. 

+ " Hordeum caeleste Norvegis gratissimum, quoniam cere- 
visiam generosam, prsebeit." The naked barley, most grateful 
to the Norwegians, as affording to them their generous beer. — 
Mitterpacher, Elemen. rei rust., page 312. 

% The Romans had two maxims on the subject of expense, 
which it would be wise in us to adopt: " Those profits are to be 
preferred which cost the least;" and again, "iSothiug is less 
profitable than very high cultivation." " Nihil minus expedire, 
quam agratn optirne colere " 

(^ Mr. Young's experiments show that there is something in 
the constitution or habits of this grain to whifh the dnii.or row 
husbandry is not accommodated. Even isolated grains weeded 
and hoed, did not do better Uian thc^-^ime number in broad cast. 



88 AGRICLiJLTURE. 

er It with a short-toothed harrow. The last opera- 
tion will be to sow and roll in your clover- seed, 
destined to become the next crop in succession. 

V. Of Clover. 

The Trifolium Agrariuin of Linnaeus is found 
growing spontaneously in- many places, as is suffi- 
ciently indicated by the names given to it; as 
Dutch clover, Spanish clover, clover of Piedmont, 
clover of Normandy, &c., &c.* It is about two 
centuries since it first became an object of agricul- 
tural attention as forage, while its ameliorating ef- 
fects on the soil, produced by its peculiar system of 
roots and leaves, was a discovery of modern date. 
It IS now generally sown with barley, or other 
spring grain of the culmiferous kind, and rarely by 
Itself. The advantages proposed by this practice 
are three: 1st, the preparation given to the soil for 
the grain crop, which is exactly that best fitted for 
the clover : 2d, the protection given by the barley 
to the young clover against the combined effects of 
heat and dryness ; and, 3d, the improved condition 
in which it leaves the soil for subsequent culture 
In this practice, however, a less quantity of barley 
must be sown than usual, because, without ventila 
tion, the clover plants will perish. To this condi- 
tion two others must be added, which are indispen- 
sable to a good crop : 1st, that your seed be good; 
•and, 2d, that it be regularly and equally sown. The 
tests of good seed are, its comparative size and 
weight (the largest and heaviest being always the 
best), its plumpness, its yellow or purple colour, 
its glossy skin, and, lastly, its cleanness or separ- 
ation from other seeds and from dirt. 

The human hand was, no doubt, the first ma- 
chine employed for sowing seeds. The difficulty, 

* A seed of Holland clover, of the same volume with one of 
Normandy clover, weighs one seventh more. See Gilbert on 
Artificial Meadows. 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. 89 

however, of scattering them equally over every part 
of the field, soon attracted notice, and engaged me- 
chanics in devising something which should better 
answer that purpose. China was the first to produce 
anything at all commensurate with this object ; and 
it was not till the seventeenth century that this, or 
some similar invention, was introduced into Europe 
by Lucateo, a Spaniard, who, meeting no encour- 
agement at home, transmitted his real or pretended 
discovery to London. Here, as has been conjec- 
tured, it served as a model for the sowing-machines 
of Tull; and from 1750 to 1770, the mania on this 
subject was at its height ; but from that period to 
the present it has been gradually subsiding, and the 
hand is now generally restored to its original func- 
tions. 

The quantity of seed to be given to the acre 
should, in a great degree, depend on the soil ; if 
this be rich, ten or twelve pounds are sufficient ; 
and if poor, double that quantity will not be too 
much. The practice of mixing the seeds of timo- 
thy and rye grass, &c., with that of clover, is a bad 
one, because these grasses neither rise nor ripen at 
the same time. Another practice, equally bad, is 
that of sowing clover seed on winter grain before 
the earth has acquired^ a temperature favourable to 
vegetation, and when there cannot be a doubt but 
that two thirds of the seed will perish. 

By the time your barley or other covering crop 
is harvested, your clover will be sufficiently estab- 
lished to live alone ; and, if not pastured* to brave 
the ensuing winter, and during the next summer to 
repay your labour by two abundant crops of grass 
or hay. 

The period in the growth of clover at which it 

*■ If the crowns of young clover roots be nibbled or otherwise 
wounded, the roots die. Sheep and horses (both of which bite 
closely) should, therefore, be particularly excluded from clover, 
unless intended for pasturage only. 



90 



AGRICULTURE. 



is most profitably cut and used, presents a question 
much discussed and variously answered ; because 
depending on extraneous and local circumstances 
(such as the state and proximity of markets, &c.), 
which cannot fail to vary the results in the hands 
of different persons, and even of the same person 
at different times and at different places. There 
are, however, some general remarks which belong 
to the case, and which ought not to be omitted in 
even this brief view of the subject. 

1st. Clover cut before it flowers abounds in water, 
has in it but little nutritive matter, and is even apt 
to produce indigestion in the cattle fed upon it.* 

2d. The stems of clover cut after seeding are 
hard and woody, and no longer hold the leaf : and, 

3d. All plants, when permitted to seed, exhaust 
the soil ; and to this rule clover is not an exception. 

From premises furnished by these facts, we would 
conclude that the short period between the flower- 
ing and seeding of clover is that in which its use 
would be most advantageous, whether regarded as 
z. forage or as an ameliorating crop. 

When seed is the principal object of culture, vfe 
cannot do better than adopt the practice in Hol- 
land, where the first crop is cut before it flowers, 
and the second is reserved for seed. 

The largeness of the stems, the number of the 
leaves, and the aqueous quantity of both, render it 
a difficult business to make clover grass into hay ; 
and the difficulty is not a little inci^eased by the 
brittleness or disposition of the drying grass to fall 
into pieces during the process of handling. To 
meet this case, two supplementary means have been 
employed, which enable you to house or stack clo- 
ver in a much greener or less dry state than would 
otherwise be safe. The one is to scatter over each 

* This effect of clover (which we call having) is prevented 
in Alsace by watering the cattle before giving them clover, be- 
cause a certain quantity of water pxe\ex\\& fermentation. 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. 91 

cartload, while slowing away for keeping, two oi 
three quarts of sea-salt : the other, to interpose be- 
tween two layers of clover one of clean straw. By 
the first method, the whole mass is made accept- 
able to cattle ; by the second, the quantum of nu- 
tritive forage is increased ; and by both methods the 
clover is effectually prevented from heating* 

The next step in our system is to plough in the 
clover stubble as a preparation for the succeeding 
crop. 

VI. Of Wheat. • 

This grain, so useful to man, because forming so 
large a portion of his subsistence, is happily found 
to adapt itself to a great variety of soils and cli- 
mates. It grows vigorously in clay, in loam, in 
calcareous earth, and even in sand, when aided by 
manures, or in succession to pease, vetches, clo- 
ver, &c. To the north it is found in the frozen 
regions of Siberia ; and in the south, under the 
burning sun of Africa, it yields, according to the 
declaration of PUny, more than one hundred fold.f 
In ancient Rome, its use, as a food for man, soon 
superseded that of barley and rye ; and in modern 
Europe it is denominated com, by way of eminence. 

Of this invaluable grain there are four species, 
distinctly marked and generally acknowledged, viz., 
many-headed wheat,| Polish wheat, spelts, and 

* The more modern, and, we think, far better way of making 
clover hay, is to put it into small cocks as soon as it has become 
dried or wilted in the swaths ; and to leave it so for thirty or 
forty hours, when it will be found sufficiently dried, on being 
opened and spread to the sun an hour or two, to take to the barn 
01 stack. In this way it makes the most and best fodder, and is 
cured with the least labour. — J. B. 

f " Tritico nihil estfertilius : utpote cum e modio, si sit ap^ 
lum solum, quale in Byzacio Africae campo, centum quinquageni 
modii reddentur." — XV'III. L. Nat. Hist. Pliny. Nothing is 
more productive than wheat ; for a bushel of this grain, sown on 
a soil adapted to it, as that of the plain of Byzantium, in Africa, 
Will yield a hundred and fifty fold. 

t This is the Triticum Compositum of hotanUh^, railed wheat 
8 



92 AGRICULTURE. 

common wheat. We shall speak only of the third 
and fourth species, because with the others we have 
little practical acquaintance ; and, 

1st. Of Spelts. This species and its principal va- 
riety (Triticum Monoicum) is much cultivated in 
Germany and Switzerland. Deprived of its husk, 
the grain is smaller than that of common wheat, but 
yields a flour of finer quality, and better fitted for 
the purposes of pastry.* Two other circumstances 
recommend it ; it withstands the attack of insects, 
and will grow in poorer soil an(f with less prepara- 
tory labour than the fourth species. 

2d. Common ivheat has many varieties, some of 
which are bearded, and others bald ; some oval, and 
others round or square ; some yellow or red, and 
others white ; some soft, and others flinty ; acci- 
dents arising from culture and climate, and not, as 
we believe, the result of an organization uniformly 
and essentially diff'erent. 

With regard to the culture of this plant, we shall 
confine ourselves to the following points : the prep- 
aration of the soil, the choice and preparation of 
the seed, and the time and diff'erent modes of sow- 
ing or planting it. 

1st. Of the preparation of the soil. 

Products of much value to man can only be ob- 
tained by corresponding degrees of labour. The 
sugar-cane, rice, and wheat, are more valuable than 
oats, buckwheat, or turnips, and require more la- 
bour and expense in their cultivation. Indeed, un- 
der the old system of fallows, the degree of both 
bestowed upon a wheat crop was enormous. Two 
years and five or six ploughings were sometimes 
ffiven to this preparatory culture ; but, on the new 
plan of a rotation of crops, the necessity for this 

of plenty, miraculous wheat, ^c, yielding largely, but, on manu- 
facture, giving much bran and bad flour. 

* The bread of Frankfort, Nuremberg, &c., so much boast- 
ed in Germany, is made from spelts. 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. 93 

IS in a great degree obviated, and two ploughings 
of a clover lay are in general amply sufficient. 
Still 'this takes for granted that these ploughings 
are well performed ; that no clods are to be seen ; 
and that the field presents an unbroken surface of 
mellow and finely-pulverized earth. 

2. Of the choice and preparation of seed. 

Seed should be taken from some fine crop of the 
preceding year* which shall have ripened thorough- 
ly and been well preserved. This, after passing 
two or three times through the fanning mill, should 
be carefully washed in clean water, and again in 
water in which a quantity of fresh lime has been 
slackened ; or, if lime cannot be had, in which clean 
and recent wood ashes have been leached. This 
washing, as we have already suggested, should 
never be omitted : because, besides detecting the 
shrunk or shrivelled grains, and many seeds of 
other plants which will float on the surface of the 
water, it entirely removes the dust of smut^ rust, 
&c., and thus prevents their propagation.! Our 

* A great variety of experiments show that wheat preserves 
its germinating faculties under circumstances apparently very 
unfavourable, and that it may even be sown to advantage when 
several years old, after a slight degree of malting in the sheaf 
or the stack, and after having been subjected to a high degree 
of artificial heat. We mention this fact, however, not to invite 
to a selection of seed-grain of either of these descriptions, but 
to assure the farmer that, where better cannot be had, he may 
employ even such, without apprehending a total loss of his 
time and labour. 

t Smut, charbon, and rust in grain, were, according to the old 
philosophy, attributed to storms, or some other particular state 
of the atmosphere ; but Messrs. Tillet, Tessier, B. Prevot, and 
Decandolle, have shown, that the two former of these diseases 
are produced by an intestinal parasite, of the uredo or mushroom 
family, the progress of which is much promoted by humidity 
and shade. Analogy favours the opinion, that rust owes its ori- 
gin to the same cause. The remedy for all is the same ; wash 
your seed-grain thoroughly in lime water, roll it in plaster of 
Paris, and sow it in the fall, before the cold and wet weather 
begins, or in the spring after it has ended. 



94 AGRICULTURE. 

next step in this process is to roll the seed in pul. 
verized gypsum. 

3d. Of the time of sowing wheat. 

On this head there is a diversity both in practice 
and opinion. Some prefer early, others late sow- 
ing : some sow in the full, others in the wane of 
the moon, &c. 

Theory is certainly on the side of early sowing ; 
since i.; gives time for the roots of the grain to es- 
tablish themselves before winter; and experience 
proves that grain early sown throws up more lat- 
eral stems than that which is sown late. 

Of lunar influences we know very little, except- 
ing that they extend to the waves of the ocean ; 
which probably first gave rise to the opinion held 
by M. Toaldo and other philosophers, that the at- 
mosphere, which is only another- and more fluid 
ocean, and which has much to do with the health 
and diseases of animals and vegetables, is also sub- 
ject to these influences. But the calculations of 
M. de Place prove that the effect of lunar influ- 
ence on the atmosphere does not make adiff"erence 
of one line and a. half on the barometer, and that it 
is wholly insufficient to account for those great 
agitations of the atmosphere which have been sup- 
posed most to aff'ect vegetation. 

4th. Of the different modes of sowing wheat. 

These are two, the one executed with the hand, 
the other with a sowing machine, of which we have 
already spoken. The latter has been advocated on 
the ground of economy, employing less seed, and 
distributing what it does employ more equally. 
Nor will it be denied that, when wheat is very high 
and labour very cheap, there may be a saving in the 
use of this machine ; but in all other circumstances 
the comparison is in favour of the other method, as 
it requires less time and fewer labourers, an4 as the 
waste and irregularity imputed to it are, in hands 
practised and steady, reduced to little or nothing. 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. 95 

A third method of propagating wheat, viz., by 
transplanting the suckers at regular distances from 
the seed-bed into another prepared to receive them, 
has been practised on a small scale, and is found to 
yield abundantly ; but it is so embarrassed with ex- 
pense as to render it entirely unfit for general use. 

Of the produce of wheat very different accounts 
have been given. To fhe extraordinary fertility of 
Byzantium, already mentioned, Pliny adds that in 
Leoniium, in Sicily, its produce was one hundred 
for one ; yet Cicero, who had been quasstor of that 
island, asserts that the produce of Sicily was but 
ten or twelve for one.* To conciliate these high 
and opposite authorities, M. Yvart has supposed 
that the product mentioned by Cicero was an aver- 
age one of the whole island ; and that that report- 
ed by Pliny was the result of one or more trans- 
planting experiments ; an opinion rendered probable 
from the fact that the parent stems and their off- 
spring had been sent to Rome by the procurator of 
Augustus. 

Some calculators have supposed, and on data not 
easily refuted, that the maximum produce of this 
grain over the whole face of the globe, and in a 
series of any ten given years, will not exceed six; 
bushels reaped for one bushel sovvn.f 

VII. Of Pease. 

The pea is a native of the southern parts of Eu- 
rope, and is found growing spontaneously in the 
western parts of our own continent. The family 
is a large one, containing several species ; but of 
these \he field-pea alone comes within the scope of 
our present purpose. Of this there are two varie- 
ties, denominated, from their colour, the gray and 

* Orat. contra Verrem. 

t The reader will remember that, on our plan, turnips follow 
wheat as they do rye, and without any difference in cultivation 
See article 3d of this chapter. To repeat what we have sale 
ther-e would be useless. 



96 AGRICULTURE. 

the green; both productive, and, when separated 
from the skin that surrounds them, a food of excel- 
lent quality for man, wholesome, nutritive, and 
pleasant ; and for cattle, whether in a dry or green 
state, much to be recommended. Sheep, cows, and 
horses are particularly fond of them ; and hogs are 
more promptly and economically fattened on a mix- 
ture of pea and barley meal, in a state of acetous 
fermentation, than with any other food. 

The structure of the roots would indicate that 
pease are an exhausting crop; and it is on this evi- 
dence that in Europe they are admitted only in 
long, or six years' rotations; but if we examine the 
leaves, in regard to both number and form, we shall 
probably find reason to modify this opinion, and to 
allow that, by stifling weeds, by checking evapora- 
tion, and eventually by their own fall, they ameli- 
orate the soil, and render it more favourable to sub- 
sequent crops. 

Following turnips in the rotation we are now dis- 
cussing, the preparatory labour for a pea crop is not 
great. One, or, at most, two ploughings, will be 
sufficient. Sowing, as a general rule, ought to fol- 
low ploughing without loss of time ; and care should 
be taken that the seed be not laid too deeply. The 
two methods, row and broadcast sowing, may be 
indifferently pursued. By the former the seed is 
economized, the product increased, and the soil bet- 
ter tilled ; but not, as some have supposed, with 
such decided advantages as to outweigh the saving 
in time and labour, of the latter. 

The length and feebleness of the stems of pease, 
and the little tendrils they throw out for support, 
indicate the advaiitage of mixing with them other 
plants of more erect growth, which may prevent the 
pease from falling and lodging. For this purpose 
rye, oats, and beans have been selected, and with 
great advantage. 

This crop is employed either in a dry or in a 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. • 97 

green state ; between which every farmer will se- 
lect according to circumstances. If the market for 
pease be brisk anjd high, he will harvest, thresh, and 
sell the grain ; if, on the other hand, pease be low 
and pork high, the moment the pods fill he will turn 
in his hogs upon them, and with the following ad- 
vantages : 1st, the hogs will feed and fatten them- 
selves, without any additional interposition of his 
labour ; 2d, no part of their manure will be lost ; 3d, 
the remains of the crop, refused by the hogs, will 
be given back to the soil ; and, 4th, the rooting of 
these animals, which in other cases is an injury, 
will in this be a benefit. 

VIII. Of Indian Corn. 

This is a native of South America, and was in- 
troduced into Europe in the 16th century ; where it 
is known by the names of wheat of Turkey, Indian 
wheat, Spanish wheat, &c.* Its productiveness and 
other good qualities have brought it into general 
use ; for it is now found in every part of the globe 
where its cultivation is not forbidden by the cold- 
ness of the climate. With proper culture, it grows 
well in a great variety of soils ; but prefers old 
and rich pasture-grounds, artificial meadows, warm 
loams, and moist vegetable mould. 

There are many varieties of this grain, denomi- 
nated from its colour, number of rows, and differ- 
ent periods of ripening. The white and the yellow^ 
of eight and twelve rows, are the varieties general- 
ly preferred. 

Corn, from its bulk, its prolific character, and sys- 
tem of roots, must necessarily be a great feeder, 
and draw much of its supplies from the ^arth; 
whence arises the rule that it ought not immediate- 

* This is the Zea of the botanists. In what does this differ 
from the zea or semen of the ancients? The favourite dish of 
the Romans was alica ; and " AUca fit e zea, quam semen ap- 
pellavimus" — Alica is made of a grain called semen. — Plin, 18 
L. Nat. Hist. 



98 AGRICULTURE. 

ly to follow or to precede any other cereal crop ; 
and that it should not be found oftener than once in 
six years in the same field. 

The seed should be taken from the finest ears of 
the last year's crop, and from those growing on 
stems which have had the largest number of ears. 
After steeping it twenty-four hours in a strong so- 
lution of nitre, it should be planted.* 

There is some difference of practice, without any 
great difference of result, in the modes of planting. 
Furrows are sometimes made at the distance of 
three or four feet from each other, and in one direc- 
tion only, and in these the seed is placed fourteen 
or sixteen inches apart. At other times the field is 
furrowed both ways, and the seed dropped and cov- 
ered at the points of intersection ; while, again, two 
rows of beans or potatoes, or mangel wurzel, are 
sometimes interposed between as many rows of 
corn. This last practice is most conformable to 
theory; but the other methods generally prevail, 
and pumpkins, beans, or turnips form the under 
crops. 

Whatever method be adopted, the time of planting 
is that at which the earth first acquires the warmth 
necessary to vegetation, and which is sufliciently 
indicated by her spontaneous productions. If we 
plant earlier, the seed is apt to rot ; if later, the 
ripening of the crop is hazarded. 

No crop, while growing, requires more attention 
than corn, and none better repays the labour be- 
stowed upon it. The objects of this are two : to 
extirpate weeds, and to keep the earth loose and 
open to the influences of the atmosphere. As soon, 
therefore, as weeds begin to show themselves, the 
surface of the field must be well harrowed. Plas- 
tering is the next operation, and may, at the dis- 

«■ See in Judge Peters's Notices to Young Farmers, the effect 
of this solution on corn crops. 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. 99 

tance of a few days, be repeated with advantage. 
The weeds will now reappear, when the triangular 
harrow, accommodated to the width of the inter- 
vals, must be employed. This, drawn by a single 
horse, will do its work expeditiously and well. The 
plough called the cultivator, with a double mould- 
board, follows the harrow,* and is itself followed 
by the hand-hoe, which alone can perform well the 
last and great operation of hilling] the corn. The 
first effect of this is to enable the grain to form new 
joints near the surface of the earth, whence will 
issue lateral roots, fitted to receive an additional 
quantity of aliment necessary or proper for the 
plant.| Care must, however, be taken to flatten 
these little mounds of earth, so as to make them 
better recipients of water. 

Corn is sometimes cultivated with a view only to 
the forage it may yield ; in which case it is gener- 
ally sown broadcast, at the rate of ten bushels to 
the acre, and cut green, while its saccharine quali- 
ties most abound. We are told by Bosc, that in the 
volcanic soil of Vicenteri, in Italy, corn managed 
in this way gives four crops in the year. As a dry 
forage, it is a great resource in warm climates, 
where natural meadows are rare, and artificial near- 
ly unknown. In the eastern parts of Virginia, it 
furnishes the principal stock of horse fodder, and 
in our northern latitudes is a useful supplement to 
clover, timothy, and red-top hay. 

The produce of corn is much affected by weath- 

* The implement now termed cultivator, or horse-hoe, is of 
recent introduction among us. We have it of various patterns, 
and it is coming into extensive use in the culture of hoed or 
drilled crops, in place of the plough. — J. B. 

t Hilling corn is becoming an exploded practice, as being 
rather prejudicial to the crop than otherwise.— J. B. 

t Bonnet was the first to make this observation ; but, if the 
reader wishes to see a full illustration of it, we refer him to the 
Memoir of M. Varennes de Fenillis, who has pro"ed that the 
crop is increased 1 13th merely by hiUing. 



100 AGRICULTURE. 

er. If this be hot and dry, the leaves, stems, and 
ears are all diminutive ; if wet, the leaves and stems 
are abundant, but the ears deficient and often dis- 
eased ; if both wet and cold, no ears are produced; 
while, on the other hand, if it be moist and warm, 
more particularly when the grain is flowering, the 
crop will be excellent. To produce this combina- 
tion is not within the reach of human industry. 
All, therefore, that agricultural foresight can effect, 
is to interpose a few days between the planting of 
different parts of the crop, so as to multiply the 
chances of favourable weather. 

IX. Of Beans. 

Of these there are several species, which, to oc- 
cupiers of clay soils, are of the utmost importance, 
because in them beans thrive best, while, at the 
same time, they greatly ameliorate and fit them for 
wheat and oat crops. The species most recom- 
mended are the Heligoland,* or small horsebean 
of England, and the white bean.f The former is 
vigorous, hardy, and productive, and an excellent 
food for cattle; the latter is more delicate and nu- 
tritive, and much employed as a food for man. J 

If beans are made to commence a course of 
crops, as they may very properly do, they ought to 
receive the dung of the year; which, as in the case 
of potatoes, should be spread over the surface of 
the field, and ploughed in without loss of time. The 
moment the spring frosts are over, the planting 
should take place, in rows or in hills, as described 
in the last article for corn; and throughout the 

* The Heligoland, and other beans of the vicia family, are 
not found to do well with us. They grow and blossom, but do 
not fruit well. — J. B. 

t This, as well as the China and other beans of the genus 
Phareola, are profitably grown on sandy as well as on clay soils. 
—J. B. 

X Pythagoras forbade his disciples the use of beans. Whence 
we may conclude that the Greeks cultivated only the horse 
bean, or bean of the marshes. 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. 101 

whole course of vegetation, the crop must be kept 
free from vveeSs : a condition, if well observed, that 
will secure an abundant produce.* 

X. Of Oats. 

Oats is among grains what the ass is among an- 
imals, very little respected, but very extensively 
employed. The levis avena of Ovid, and the ster- 
iles dominantur avena. of Virgil, show the degrees, 
both of use and abuse, with which it was regarded 
by the Romans. In modern times, a great literary 
authorityt describes it as food for Scotch men and 
English horses. It is probably this its state of deg- 
radation among poets and philosophers, that deter- 
mined the botanists of Europe to give to America 
the honour of having produced it. Mr. Adanson 
found it growing spontaneously in Juan Fernandez ; 
whence the philosophers wisely concluded that it 
must be a native of Chili ! But in this conclusion 
they appear to have equally forgotten the laws of 
nature and the decisions of history ; for the quota- 
tions with which we began this article show that 
oats were cultivated in Italy many centuries before 
the existence of America was known to any Euro- 
pean, and few are ignorant that Chili is among the 
hottest and driest regions of the globe, and that 
oats perish in dry and hot climates. 

Of the many different species or varieties of this 
grain, the black and the white are those which best 
deserve cultivation, because most hardy and pro- 
ductive. In the poorest soil, and with the smallest 
possible labour, they give something ; but because 
they do not give much, in circumstances under 
which other grains would give nothing, we infer 
that the grain itself is a poor one, and, at the same 
time, a great exhauster of the soil. We owe to 
Mr. Dranus a series of experiments and calcula- 

* In a favourable season, under good management, the white 
oean gives thirty for one. 
t Dr. Johnson. 



102 AGRICULTURE. 

tions which overturn this opinion, and demonstrate 
that " oats, in rotation, under proper culture and in 
good soil, are not less profitable than wheat or rye ; 
that after beans, cabbages, or potatoes, it yields 
great crops, and that it exhausts less than other 
grains which occupy the soil a greater length of 
time." As a protector of Clover or other grass 
seeds, with some of which it should always be 
sown, it is second only to barley. 

XI. Of Cabbages* 

These have been long known among us as a gar- 
den vegetable, but are rarely met with in field cul- 
ture ; a fact the more extraordinary, as in England 
they have been very extensively and profitably em- 
ployed in that way for more than half a century. 

The species most recommended are the early 
Salsbury and York, the great Scotch, the Drum- 
head, the Cavalier, and the green Savoy. Mr. Cob- 
bett has remarked, with much good sense, that the 
species best for man are also best for cattle ; and 
that, on this ground, the last of those mentioned 
should form the principal part of our cabbage crop. 

The seed of early cabbages, as the York and the 
Salsbury, should be sown in hotbeds about the 
middle of February ; and that of winter and fall 
cabbages in the open field about the 15th of May. 
The bed selected for the latter should be of good 
soil and well ventilated ; that is, exposed on all 
sides to the influences of the air, and without arti- 
ficial shelter. When the plants rise, they should 
be sprinkled with unleached ashes or gypsum, and, 
if attacked by the fly, may be slightly and tempo- 
rarily covered with branches of elder. If the weath- 
er be uncommonly dry, a little watering may be 

* It Is doubtful whether cabbages will ever constitute with 
us a field crop for feeding stock, since the introduction of ruta 
baga, beets, and carrots, which are found to be more certain 
and abundant crops here than the cabbage, and are more easily 
preserved for winter use. — J. B. 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. 103 

proper; but much of this should be avoided, I /ecause 
plants, like animals, may become topers, and will 
then drink more than will be useful to them. 

The transplanting of early cabbages should not 
be delayed beyond the 12ih of May, nor that of the 
late kinds beyond the first of June. An acre of 
ground will require about six thousand plants. 

The preparation of the soil for this crop is exactly 
that described for potatoes, and which, therefore, 
need not be repeated here. When the manuring, 
ploughing, and harrowing are finished, strike your 
furrows from east to west, four feet apart ; place 
your plants in these, twenty inches from each other, 
and do not forget so to press the earth as to bring it 
in contact with every part of the roots. 

The advantage of this crop will be best seen by 
contrasting it with another, hay for example. If 
we get a ton of timothy per acre, we think we do 
well, and are satisfied; yet, if this acre had been 
well worked and manured, and planted in cabbages, 
it would, according to Mr. Young, have given you 
more than thirty times the weight of the hay. Why 
not, then, prefer the cabbages to the hay ? Our cat- 
tle, it may be said, will not like them so well. Hear 
what the same author says on this head : " Young 
cattle go through the winter well on cabbages ; ewes 
and lambs thrive on them ; fatting oxen improve 
faster on them than on any other food, and never fall 
off, as they sometimes do on turnips; and milch 
cows do better on cabbages, six to one, than on 
hay,'' &c. But the difficulty of preserving them 
through the winter may be great. Not half as great 
as that of preserving potatoes ; for a frost that will 
convert these into dirty water, will do cabbages no 
harm, and may even do them good. Mr. Cobbett 
preserved them through a Long Island winter, and 
had them sound and fresh in the month of May, 
and by a method equally cheap and expeditious ; re- 
quiring only a plough, a few leaves, straw, or brush, 



104 AGRICULTURE. 

and some shovelfuls of earth : " nnd here," says 
he, " they were at all times ready ; l^r to this land I 
could have gone at aiiv lime. and have brought 
away (if the quantity had been large) a wagon-load 
in ten minutes." 

XII. Of Buckwheat. 

This excellent grain is a native of Asia, whence 
it was carried to Africa, and thence by the Moors 
to Europe. In France it yet retains the name of 
sarrasin. 

The species of it in cultivation are two, the com- 
mon and the Tartarean (Polygonum Tartaricum of 
Linnaeus.)* This last species is highly extolled by 
Professor Pallas and others. It ripens earlier, and 
produces more than the common species ; but, on 
the other hand, it shells more easily, and has in it 
an unpleasant degree of bitterness. 

Cattle, hogs, and poultry are particularly fond of 
this grain, and no food fattens them more promptly. 

Being entirely destitute of gluten (the animo ve- 
getable part of wheat), it is not convertible into 
bread, but, made into batter and baked into cakes, 
it forms a very tolerable substitute. Another great 
advantage of buckwheat is, that, with a small de- 
gree of labour, it thrives well in the poorest sand or 
gravel ; and in clays which are only slightly moist, 
it gives a good crop, and never fails to leave them 
loose, friable, and clean. To the clay-land farmer 
this property is invaluable ; and, to make the most of 
it, he should remember that this labour-saving grain 
ought to have more of attention and liberality 
than is generally given to it ; for if, under the hard 
treatment and in the by-places where it is now 
cultivated, it yields so much and works these im- 
portant effects on the soil, how greatly would its 
usefulness be increased, were it made to follow 
pease, beans, cabbages, or potatoes, in regular rota- 
tion and on a large scale. 

* Called also Indian wheat. — J. B. 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. 105 

We have already spoken of it as a manure ; and 
we take this occasion to quote from a late editor of 
the Theatre d' Agriculture of O. Serres, the follow- 
ing passage : " We cannot too much recommend, 
after our old and constant practice, the emplo}''- 
ment of this precious plant as a manure. It is 
certainly the most economical and convenient the 
farmer can employ. A small quantity of seed, cost- 
ing very little, sows a large surface and gives a great 
crop. When in flower, first roll and then plough it 
in. Its shade, while growing, destroys all weeds, 
and itself, when buried, is soon converted into ter- 
reau."* 

The experiments of M. Vauquelin show that, of 
one hundred parts of buckwheat, ^//y are carbonate 
and sulphate of potash, and carbonate of Hme 



CHAPTER X. 

OF OTHER PLANTS USEFUL IN A ROTATION OF CROPS, 
AND ADAPTED TO OUR CLIMATE. 

These may be brought under three classes ; those 
which yield a colouring matter, those which yield 
oil, and those whose bark is convertible into cloth- 
ing. Of the first are madder, saffron, and woad ; of 
the second, poppy, colet, and palma Christi ; and of 
the third, flax and hemp. 

I. Of Madder. 

Madder is the erythros of the Greeks, and the ru- 
hia of the Latins, so called from its imparting a red 
colour to wool and leather. It is cultivated in the 
Levant, in France, in Flanders, and in England ; but 
nowhere more extensively or profitably than in 

* Vegetable mould. 



106 AGRICULTURE. 

Holland. The province of Zealand is principally 
occupied with it, and the little island of Schowen 
alone gives annually one thousand tuns of the root. 

The species generally cultivated are two, the 
Azara and Izari; names by which they are called 
in the Levant, whence the seed is generally import- 
ed to Europe, and preferred to that raised in more 
northern latitudes. 

The soil most proper for this plant is a rich loam, 
and the manures fittest for it the sweepings of streets 
and gutters, and mud of ponds.* It is remarked in 
England that it succeeds better after a grain than 
after a grass crop. The preparatory labour should 
be performed in the fall, leaving a single ploughing 
only for the spring, which, like those that preceded 
it, should be as deep as possible. The planting 
should follow without delay. In the Levant they 
form beds, alternately, of unequal elevation ; one 
high, the other low ; on the latter the madder is 
planted,! and in the autumn of the second year the 
surface of the higher bed is scattered over that 
which is lower ; and by a similar process the next 
year the lower bed is raised six inches higher than 
the other. By this management the earth retains 
sufficient humidity for the growing plants. 

In transplanting madder, care must be taken to 
preserve the buttons which attach themselves to 
the roots, and that the roots themselves be ten 
inches apart in the rows, and their crowns not more 
than two inches below the surface. 

The greatest duration of the plant is six years, 
but three is the permitted term; as, after that, age, 
the roots lose in colour and soundness what they 

* Young's works. 

t Madder requires more moisture in its first stage than is 
ordinarily furnished by rains and dews. Thence arose the meth- 
od of raising the plants in a seed-bed, where they might be 
watered at will, and afterward transferred to the place where 
they were intended to grow. 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. 107 

gain in bulk. At three years a single root has been 
found to weigh between thirty and forty pounds ; 
and, the larger the root, the less does it lose, in pro- 
portion, by depreciation.* 

When the roots are taken up, they are suspended 
under cover for ten or twelve days to dry. During 
this time much of the water of vegetation is evapo- 
rated ; the plant becomes soft, and is then subjected 
to the heat of an oven from which bread has been 
taken. After a second baking it comes out dry and 
brittle ; and to disengage from it the earth, the small 
fibres, and the outer skin of the root, it is lightly 
threshed with a flail, after which it is fit for grinding. 

Of Woad.^ 

This plant, till 1756, was much employed, and fur- 
nished the finest blue colour ; and, in the opinion of 
some dyers, is even now very profitably united with 
indigo, giving to the colour imparted by it more in- 
tensity as well as duration. The maturity of the 
leaves', which are the only useful part of the plant, is 
announced by their drooping, and by the yellow col- 
our which they take. At this signal they must be 
stripped from their stems, housed, and left in mass 
till, freed from, the water of vegetation, they begin 
to macerate by their own weight. They are then 
to be washed and reduced to a paste ; after which a 
fermentation takes place, and the fecula shows it- 
self and forms a black crust, which is not to be bro- 
ken, because necessary to prevent evaporation. 
When the fermentation has subsided (which may 
be known by the diminished stench), the mass is 
pounded and formed into balls for use. The soil 
and preparation indicated in the last article for mad- 
der are most proper for woad. 

Of Saffron. 

This plant is culivated only for the stigmata of 
the flowers, which give a yellow colour and are 

* In large roots this loss is (S-7ths, in small ones 7-8ths. 
9 



108 AGRICULTURE. 

employed in dyeing and in gauche painting. It suc- 
ceeds best in a ricli, friable, black earth, or in one 
of a dark red or chocolate colour. Some writers 
have remarked that the roots, which are bulbous, 
grow to the greatest size in the former of these 
soils, and that the flowers attain the highest perfec- 
tion in the latter. The manure best adapted to it is 
old and thorougly-rotted dung. 

After being well ploughed, rolled, and harrowed, 
the ground intended for this crop is trenched, and 
the roots placed in the trenches nine or ten inches 
apart. So soon as the flowers appear, which al- 
ways precede the leaves, the soil about them must 
be lightly hoed. When fully blown, and while wet 
with dew, they are taken off carefully with the hand 
and spread upon boards to dry. The stigmata are 
then separated from the styles, after which they are 
ready for market. 

Of the Poppy. 

The poppy is among the most important of the 
oil-giving plants, as well for the value as for the 
abundance of its produce. The oil is altogether 
found in the seeds, and does not partake of any som- 
niferous or other deleterious quality, as some per- 
sons have supposed. It is often mixed with olive 
oil, and, so long as it is fresh, it is equally pleasant 
and wholesome. It is much used in France, Hol- 
land, and Germany, in salads. Its only fault is, 
that, if long kept, it becomes thick and viscous. The 
plant is annual, and requires a good and well- labour- 
ed soil. The seeds should be taken from the ripest 
and largest capsules of the preceding year ; should 
be sown early and thin, and in broadcast ; because, 
if thickly sown, the plants rot, and, if sown late, 
they are injured by a too rapid vegetation. The 
fall of the leaf, the dying of the stalk, and the brown 
colour of the capsules, indicate the time for harvest- 
ing the crop. These last are carefully gathered 
and dried, and the seed separated from them. 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. 109 

Of Cole. 

Cole or rape is a variety of the cabbage, the seed 
of which ^aelds an oil very useful to the arts, and 
renders the plant of great importance in agriculture. 
Its general management does not differ from that of 
any other variety of the kind. When the seed is 
ripe, it must be carefully gathered and separated 
from its chaff. The plantations of cole in Flanders, 
and particularly in the neighbourhood of Lisle, Has- 
brook, and Douay, and on a part of the Escant, are 
immense. They generally follow a crop of well- 
dunged, well-laboured potatoes, and are followed by 
one of wheat. 

Palma Christie or the castor-oil plant, and the rici- 
nus of botanists, has been cultivated in this state; 
but whether profitably or not we do not know. Its 
seed gives an oil fit for lamps, but principally em- 
ployed as a medicine. The cultivation of this plant 
has been tried in the southern parts of France, but 
not on a large scale, as it was found to require much 
ground and to give few seeds, which ripen only in 
succession. In Carolina the stem attains the height 
of ten or twelve feet, and a diameter of four or five 
inches. As an ornamental shrub, the palma Christi 
is much to be recommended. 

Of the Sunflower. 

This plant is a native of Peru, and is cultivated 
in Europe principally for the seeds, which give a 
large proportion of oil, of much use for domestic 
purposes. It requires a good soil, well manured, 
and thoroughly worked and cleansed. The seeds 
should be sown one foot apart, and in rows two feet 
asunder. In France the stems are employed for 
fuel and peasticks, and the leaves for fodder.* 

Of Flax. 

Flax is of Asiatic origin, and, from its hardiness 
and usefulness, is generally diffused over the globe. 

* See Crete de Paleuil on tht Sunflower. 



110 AGRICULTURE. 

No plant undergoes a greater change in the hands 
of labour, and few, if any, better repays the labour 
bestowed upon it.* It is cultivated for two differ- 
ent objects : for the fibre which surrounds the stem, 
and which is convertible into cloth, and for the 
seeds, which yield an oil very important to the arts. 
These diiferent purposes have been supposed to be 
best promoted by different kinds of seed and differ- 
ent kinds of culture. In England it is believed that 
the seed of this country gives a flax of greater 
length and of finer fibre ; and that the seed of Me- 
mel or Rigaf produces a coarser plant and a greater 
quantity of seed. We doubt, however, the correct- 
ness of this distinction, and think ourselves support- 
ed by experience, as well as theory, in placing the 
difference less to the account of any peculiar qual- 
ity of the seed, than to the greater or smaller quan- 
tity of it sown ; for we have invariably observed 
that, if flaxseed, wherever grown, be sown thinly^ 
the stem is shorter, the fibre coarser, and the seed 
more abundant, and vice versa. This difference 
will necessarily be increased by different modes of 
culture. The row husbandry, admitting of more 
ventilation, will hasten more the maturity of the 
plant, and increase the quantity and quality of the 
seed; whereas the broadcast method will, on the 
other hand, retard the maturity of the plant, length- 
en the stem and the fibre that covers it, and, in the 
same proportion, diminish the quantity of seed. 

Flax may be made to follow potatoes very advan- 
tageously ; and we have seen the practice of sowing 
it with a crop of that kind earnestly recommend- 
ed.| 

The time for harvesting flax depends on the con- 

* How wonderful the difference between the raw material 
and Brussels lace ! 

t The flaxseed of Riga is broad and flat, and of a darker 
colour than that of this country. 

X See 2d vol, Varla's Husbandry. 



PLANTS AND THEIR CULTURE. Ill 

siderations suggested above. If seed be the princi- 
pal end of the crop, your harvesting ought not to 
begin till this is completely ripe ; whereas, if the 
fibre be your main object, pull the flax two or three 
weeks earlier. Elax thus prematurely pulled is 
called white flax, and makes the finest thread. The 
exhausting quality of this plant is generally admit- 
ted, and has been long known. Pliny says of it, 
that it burns and degrades the soil in return for the 
nourishment it receives from it.* 

Of Hemp. 

The cultivation of this plant need not be attempt-' 
ed on soils which are not naturally or artificially 
very rich. They who possess the former will of- 
ten find the culture of hemp useful in reducing the 
staple of the soil to that medium quality which is 
best fitted for the production of grain' In some 
parts of our own country hemp has been cultivated 
many years in succession, before this effect was 
produced; and in Italy, in the neighbourhood of 
Bologna, after centuries of cultivation, the rotation 
continues to be wheat and hemp alternately, and 
without fallows. So also in the environs of Ter- 
monde, near Brussels, the usual rotation is hemp, 
flax, and wheat.\ It is, perhaps, to those favoured 
soils we ought to look for the best mode of culti- 
vating this very useful and profitable plant. " Du- 
ring the first year," says M. Simmonde, in his Pic- 
ture of Tuscan Agriculture, " the field intended for 
hemp is laid flat by the small Tuscan plough in the 
months of August and September. This is follow- 
ed by the great plough, which reinstates the four- 
feet furrows, and throws up the intermediate earth 
mto ridges. The manure is applied to these in the 
spring; after which the hemp-seed is sown and 

* " Ut sentiamus, nolente id ferre natura, urit agrum deteri 
oremqueetiain terram facit." Nat. Hist., l.xix. 

t Francis de Neauchateau's State of Husbandry in the sena 
toriat of Brussels. 



112 AGRICULTURE. 

the ground harrowed. This crop, like that of flax 
should be weeded when about four inches high." 

Of Swallow-wort or Milkweed. 

This is the asclepias Syriaca of the botanists, and 
not improperly called the cotton of northern lati- 
tudes. Its cortical fibre yields a*fine, soft, and white 
thread, and the pods a silky material, usefully em- 
ployed in waddings and in hat-making, &c. " There 
are few plants," says Sonnini, " the culture of which 
unites more advantages, or which is more worthy 
the attention of farmers. In Silesia it has made 
considerable progress ; and experience shows that 
in a middling, or even a bad soil, it gives a product 
eight times more valuable than the finest crop of 
flax or hay. It requires a strong and moist soil, 
well laboured and manured, and may be propagated 
by seeds, by suckers, or by roots. The row hus- 
bandry is the most proper for it, and in the course 
of three years the intervals between the furrows 
will be completely filled up by new and multiplied 
shoots. 

Of the plant called New- Zealand Flax. 

This is iheformion tenax of botanists ; the leaves 
of which, by maceration in water, yield a fibre re- 
markable for beauty and strength. We owe to M. 
Labillardiere a series of experiments, the result of 
which shows that the strength of flax being 11, that 
of hemp is 16 1-3, and that of formion 23 5-11. In 
the hot countries, of which this plant is a native, it 
is found on the seashore, growing sometimes in 
wet or marshy soils, and sometimes in arid sands. 
M. Thouin has succeeded in naturalizing it in the 
north of France, which gives reason to believe that 
it may be made to succeed in this climate 



i 



MEADOWS. 113 



CHAPTER XI. 

OF MEADOWS. 

These are either natural or artificial ; the former 
containing only plants of spontaneous growth, the 
latter those selected, sown, and cultivated by man. 
The better to keep this distinction in view, we shall 
speak of them separately ; and, 

I. Of Natural Meadows. 

These have been classed by botanists according 
to their elevation; and have thence been denomina- 
ted high, middhng, and low. But as this principle 
fails altogether to indicate their agricultural charac- 
ter and properties,* a better one has been found in 
their relative moisture ; whence they are denom- 
iniited dry, or moist, or wet. The products of these 
have been carefully and skilfully analyzed in Ger- 
many, in Italy, in England, and in France ;t and the 
result shows that wet meadows contain a smaller 
number of the different species of plants, but a 
greater number of those which are either useless 
or injurious; and, on the other hand, that moist 
meadows contain a greater number of the former, 
and a smaller number of the latter. The following 
simple table exhibits, at a glance, the present state 
of knowledge on this important part of our subject : 
Whole number of Plants 

in wet meadows, 30 ; useful 4, useless or bad 26. 
Do. in dry meadows, 38 ; do. 8, do. 30. 

Do. in moist meadows, 42 ; do. 17, do. 25. 

* We often find bogs on the tops of mountains, and arid sands 
on the banks of rivers. 

t See " Observations mac'ie by the Agricultural Society of 
Great Britain," and " Merncires sur I'Agriculture du Bouton- 
nai.s," &c., &c., per M. Dumont de Coursit. 



114 AGRICULTURE. 

The agricultural labours suggested by these facts 
are of two kinds: the eradicating of useless or per- 
nicious plants, and the continuance and multiplica- 
tion of those which are good. The first of these 
objects is promoted by mowing the meadows be- 
fore the seeds of noxious plants ripen, by pasturing 
them once in three years with sheep, horses, and 
cattle in succession ; by harrowing them in the 
spring and fall ; by weeding and hoeing them ; and, 
lastly, by sufficiently draining those that are wet. 

Many pernicious plants are annuals, and are kill- 
ed by the first of these operations, A similar ef- 
fect is produced by the second ; the harrow, or scar- 
ificator, will best destroy mosses or other weeds 
whose roots are fibrous and superficial ; the hand- 
hoe will extirpate such tap-rooted plants as resist 
the harrow and are refused by cattle ; and draining 
will expel all worthless aquatics. 

Of these remedies, the last may require some ex- 
planation. Meadows are wet from different caus- 
es ; from obstructions, accidental or permanent, to 
the course of rivers ; from occasional inundations ; 
from high and uncommon tides ; from neighbouring 
springs, issuing sometimes above and sometimes 
below the level of the grounds you wish to drain ; 
and frequently from others rising up within the 
meadows themselves. In the first case, the reme- 
dy is obvious, and consists altogether in removing 
the obstructions ; in the second and third, embank- 
ments, as in the Mississippi and Delaware, will ex- 
clude the flood ; and in the fourth and fifth, the cure 
lies in creating a surface of lower level than that 
of the meadows to be drained, or in raising the 
water to a level above that of the meadows, and 
carrying it off by raceways or canals. The former 
of these methods is to be executed by ditching, or 
by digging through the subsoil into sand or gravel, 
whence the water will find a subterranean passage. 
The latter is effected by enclosing the springs with- 



MEADOWS. 115 

in walls, and permitting them to rise to the level 
of their own source. It is evident, however, that 
if these be not higher than that of the meadow, the 
experiment will fail* 

The second object, viz., the multiplication and 
continuance of good plants, will be ensured by scat- 
tering in the fall or spring, or both, after the har- 
row or scarificator, the seeds of useful grasses,! 
particularly upon places rendered raw or bare by 
the harrow or the hoe; by covering the meadows 
in the fall with straw, dung, lime, or marl ; and in 
the spring, with plaster of Paris or ashes ; by fold- 
ing or parking sheep or horned cattle during the 
summer, and while the ground is hard, on places re- 
quiring manure ; by foddering on such places during 
the winter ; and, lastly, by irrigation. This last and 
most efficient method of bettering the condition of 
meadows is sometimes characterized by the dura- 
tion of its means, and sometimes by the mode of 
applying them. In the first case, it is called tem- 
porary or permanent, as the stream it employs may 
be the one or the other. In the second case, it is 
denominated filtration or submersion, according to 
the eff*ect produced. If, for instance, the surface 
be only wetted by running water, it is called filtra- 
tion ; but if entirely covered with water, in a state 
of rest, it is called submersion. These diflferent. 
modes have some principles common to both, and 
some peculiar to each. The common principles 
are, 

1st. Such command of water as will cover the 
largest surface with the least labour and expense. 

2d. Muddy water (the eff'ect of loosened soil and 
heavy rains) is most favourable to vegetation, be- 

* See Anderson's Essays on Agriculture, vol. i., p. 119, &c.* 

t In selecting these grasses, care should be taken to employ 

those most resembling the spontaneous growth of the field, or, 

in other words, those which flower and seed at the same time 

with this spontaneous growth. 



116 AGRICULTURE. 

cause, besides giving the necessary moisture, it fur- 
nishes a considerable portion of alluvial matter. 

3d. Water charged with sand or gravel, or con- 
taining irpn or vitriol, or of a temperature very hot 
or very cold, is unfavourable to vegetation, and 
ought not to be employed, until, by standing in res- 
ervoirs, it deposites these injurious matters in the 
one case, and in the other acquires the temperature 
of the atmosphere. 

4th. Clay and calcareous soils require less water- 
ing than others. 

5th. Irrigation is of less importance in northern 
than in southern latitudes ; and, 

6th. In cold climates, or in situations of much 
elevation, irrigation is most usefully employed in 
the spring and autumn; and in hot climates and 
sandy soils in the summer. 

The principles peculiar to the two modes may 
be collected from the following brief detail of the 
labours necessary to each. In irrigating by sub- 
mersion, the first and great labour is to make a dam 
of such strength as shall resist the volume of water 
by which it may be pressed ; of such height as will 
raise the water above the level of the ground you 
wish to overflow ; and of such structure as will en- 
able you to discharge the water it collects promptly 
and entirely. The signal for doing this is the rising 
of air-bubbles from the bottom of the pond, which 
never takes place until a decomposition of the 
plants below begins. In winter, this tendency to 
decomposition is corrected by cold ; and the sub- 
mersion may, of course, be continued for weeks 
and months, and the water permitted to freeze, not 
only without injury, but with great benefit to the 
plants, particularly if they have been closely pas- 
tured in the fall. 

Filtration is a process requiring, in general, more 
labour and science than the other; because, besides 
a dam to raise a sufficient head of water, you must 



MEADOWS. 117 

have your canal of derivation, your reservoir, your 
cuts or ditches, and, lastly, your fosse or pit of dis- 
charge, which, to be useful, must be well construct- 
ed and judiciously placed. The cana] and reservoir 
will necessarily occupy the highest ground, and be 
proportioned to the quantity of water to be conduct- 
ed and retained ; the cuts or ditches, supplied from 
the reservoir, will be parallel to each other, of near- 
ly equal descent, but of diameters diminishing in 
proportion to their length, so as to give to the water 
the same swiftness it had when its volume was 
greatest. Stops or gates must be made in the cuts 
or ditches in such number as may be necessary so 
to pond the water as to make it overflow the lovv<er 
sides of the ditches, and at such points as will, from 
the shape of the ground, diffuse it most generally. In 
this way, small streams, occasional showers, and 
dissolving snows may be turned to great account, 
and with this additional advantage, that they require 
no reservoirs, and little, if any, draining, and only 
cuts or ditches formed with a plough or a hoe. 

A third kind, compounded of the two others, is 
sometimes seen in Europe, where the water, after 
being employed in irrigating the sides of hills, is 
brought upon flats for the purpose of inundation, or, 
more generally, for that of forming reservoirs, from 
which it may again be raised by machinery, such 
as the noria of the Moors, or the hydraulic ram of 
Montgolfier, &c.* 

II. Of Artificial Meadows. 

We have seen that natural meadows abound in 
plants either useless or pernicious ; and that it is 
among the principal labours of agriculture to eradi- 

* Whoever may have occasion to study the two subjects ' 
(draining and irrigation), either separately or in connexion, can- 
not do better than consult the HydraulicArchitecture of Belli- 
dor, the Hydraulics of Dubuat, M. de Ourche's General Treatise 
on Meadovvs, Defue on the Embankments of Holland, and Rich 
ardson's Agriculture. 



118 AGRICULTURE. 

caie these, and to substitute for them others of 
greater product or better quality. It was probably 
this process which first suggested the idea of arti- 
ficial meadoivs, or those composed only of plants of 
our own choosing, and alternating with grain or root 
crops. And it cannot be doubted that, if the grasses 
selected be good in themselves, adapted to the soil, 
and carefully culivated, we thus arrive at the high- 
est possible degree of perfection of which this 
branch of the art is susceptible ; because, besides 
having only wholesome and nutritive forage, we double 
its quantity, and, at the same time, put the soil in a 
state to give us a series of good subsequent crops. 

France claims the credit of having been the first 
to discover the value, and to introduce the practice 
of this new system ; and it may not be amiss to col- 
lect some of the reports of her writers on the agri- 
cultural changes wrought by it. " If," says Yvart, 
" meadows be the nerve of good husbandry, it is, 
above all, to artificial meadows we must apply this 
great truth. The state of those cantons which have 
adopted the new system is now as brilliant as it 
was before wretched and miserable. Alsace has 
put on a new face since the introduction of clover, 
and wheat crops have been increased more than 
one third. The village of Sebach, under the old 
system, bought annually 180^,000 pounds of forage, 
and now sells 150,000. The canton of Virien, which 
gave formerly only rye and buckwheat (and poor 
crops of these), now gives abundant crops of fine 
wheat. This is altogether owing to clover and gyp- 
sum. The same remark applies to the department 
of Doubs. In the department of the Seine and Ouse, 
the four year rotation is adopted, of which clover 
is the basis, and more than doubles the produce for 
exportation. In Varenne, the soil of which is a 
poor sand, the same effect is produced by sainfoin 
instead of clover. In a canton of the department 
of Loiret, M. Sageret has doubled his income by 



MEADOWS. 119 

the introduction and culture of lucerne." It would 
be mere waste of time to multiply quotations on 
this liead. Few men of our own country who have 
had their eyes open for some years past, but must 
have seen the wonderful effects produced by plaster- 
ed clover ; and if there be any who resist these evi- 
dences, or are insensible to them, they must be far 
beyond the reach of instruction. We hasten, there- 
fore, to another and important part of our subject, 
the choice of grasses for artificial meadows. Those 
most recommended by the experience of all coun- 
tries are lucerne, sainfoin, and clover of the legu- 
minous family ; and timothy, oat-grass, ray-grass, 
and meadow fox-tail of the gramineal.* We shall 
say a few words of each, and, 1st. oi Lucerne. — This 
plant is a native of Media, whence its Latin name 
Medica. It was well known and highly esteemed 
by the ancients, uniting in itself many valuable quali- 
ties, as early fitness for use, great productiveness 
and duration,! and juices the most nutritious and 
acceptable to cattle. In the south of Europe it still 
maintains this high reputation, and in our southern 
climates would entirely deserve it ; but of its suc- 
cess here we have doubts, founded on the fact that 
all attempts made to introduce it, and coming with- 
in our own observation, have failed. Two condi- 
tions are, however, indispensable to its prosperity 
in any climate, and these are a rich soil and careful 
cultivation. In wet, or stony, or stiff ground, it does 
not thrive. Its long tap-root must plunge into the 
earth without obstruction, otherwise the plant suf- 
fers and dies prematurely. 2d. Sainfoin. — This 

* Of the grasses here named, sainfoin is found not to succeed 
in the United States. We have not the chalky soil in which it 
thrives best, and our winters are considered too severe for it ; 
and the ray or rye-grass is not well adapted to our hot summers. 
Neither seem to be congenial to our soil and climate. — J. B, 

t " Tante dos est ejus ut eum uno situ tricenis annis duret 
medica." — Plin., Nat. Hist. Such are the valuable properties of 
lucerne, that it will flourish for thirty years on 'the same spot. 



120 AGRICULTURE. 

grows well in Europe as high as the 51st degree of 
north latitude. A species of it is found growing 
spontaneously in the Pays de Calais, which shows 
itself earlier than the more common or Spanish spe- 
cies. Its produce is less than that of lucerne ; but 
the quality of its herbage, whether green or dry, is 
better. Sheep are particularly fond of it. . It affects 
high, dry, naked, white, cretaceous soils ; amelio- 
rates the condition of these, and holds them better 
together than any other plant. The following ex- 
tract may give both instruction and encouragement 
to those who would cultivate this plant: " In Cala- 
bria, sainfoin is sown upon wheat or other stubble, 
which is then burned, and the ashes made to furnish 
a covering for the grass-seed. In the spring, with- 
out other care or culture, the field is found covered 
thickly with sainfoin, and converted into a fine 
meadow. This grass crop is cut and fed between 
May and August, when the ground is ploughed for 
grain, of which the crop is generally very abundant. 
But the advantages of this husbandry do not end 
here ; for, after the grain is harvested, the earth re- 
sumes its covering of sainfoin, which, in this way, 
is continued forty years and more, admitting every 
second year a crop of fine wheat,"* 3d. Like sain- 
foin and lucerne, clover is of the leguminous family, 
and, though less productive than the others, has 
one advantage that gives it a decided preference, 
viz., its growing well in a great variety of soils. In 
gravel, in loam, in alluvial and calcareous earths, if 
does well ; and we have already seen that in poor 
and sandy soils it doubles the income of those who 
employ it, as well by increasing the quantity of for- 
age, as by putting the ground into a state to yield 
many and abundant future crops of grain. Still 
there are soils, stiff, cold, and wet, in which it does 
not succeed, and in which'lt ought to give place to 

* Grimaldi on the agriculture of Calabria. 



MEADOWS. 121 

the gramineal family. 4th. Timothy. — This grass, in 
Europe, is called herd-grass, cat's-tail, or phleum 
pralense (the botanical name) ; but, as the plant is 
of Yankee origin, we have chosen to retain the 
Yankee denomination. Its reputation abroad was at 
one time very high, and in moist grounds deserves to 
be so at all limes ; but, being very tardy in showing 
itself in the spring, it has in many places fallen into 
disuse. 5th. Ray or rye-grass, to the good proper- 
ties of timothy, superadds that precocity which tim- 
othy wants. " We have seen," says Gilbert, " in 
the canton of Basle, rye-grass five feet high on the 
first day of June ;" and M. de Courset assures us 
that he has obtained " three cuttings from it in one 
year." Sheep are found to prefer it in the spring 
to any other plant ; and the shepherds of Spain have 
a proverb which very energetically expresses its 
nutritive quaUties : " Bouccado van ventrado," a 
mouthful is a bellyful. We particularly invite the 
attention of farmers having clay, or other moist or 
wet soils, to the cultivation of this and the two fol- 
lowing species of grasses. 6th. Oat-grass, the Ave- 
na elatior of botanists, was first cultivated in 1754, 
and, having been committed to a good soil, the re- 
sults were highly favourable. It was accordingly 
recommended as yielding abundance of forage, and 
of a good quality : and that the first cutting might 
take place as early as the last of March. Though 
new and extended experiments have in some degree 
diminished this reputation, still enough of it is left 
to render this grass a favourite with every scientific 
agriculturist. 7th. Of the meadow fox- tail there are 
four species, but we shall speak only of the Alope- 
curus pratensis, which, of all the grasses we have 
mentioned, is the tallest, the most vigorous, and 
the soonest fit for pasturage or the scythe. Its 
hay appears to be of a better quality than that of 
the gramineal grasses, because equally rehshed by 
cows, horses, and sheep. It is only, however, in 



122 AGRICULTURE. 

soils neither too moist nor too dry that it attains 
the perfection of which it is susceptible. 

What remains of this subject may be referred to 
the general principles of tillage, and the particular 
preparation necessarj' for clover crops, both of 
which may be found in the preceding chapters. 



CHAPTER XII. 

OF FARM CATTLE. 

These consist of horses, mules, cows, oxen, 
sheep, and hogs. It is not the object of this chap- 
ter to discuss the relative value of animals of differ- 
ent kinds, nor to explain the principles on which an 
individual of either kind is preferred to another in- 
dividual of the same kind, but merely to indicate 
the uses of each, and the modes most approved for 
giving extension and value to these uses. And, 

I. Of the Horse. 

Of this animal naturalists admit but one species, 
but many and widely different varieties, which are 
again subdivided under the denomination of races.* 
At the head of these, by common consent, stands 
the horse of Arabia, and after him the Persian, the 
Barb, the Andalusian, and the English. His flesh 
not entering, like that of the ox, into the general 
and ordinary subsistence of man,t he is valued only 

* Bakewell and others have shown that you may multiply 
these races at will. By selecting two individuals of any given 
shape, size, and colour which you may prefer, you secure a 
progeny having all the qualities of their parents. This obser- 
vation applies as well to horned cattle and hogs as to horses, 
and might be usefully taken as a rule of conduct in this country. 

t Horseflesh is eaten by the Negroes of Africa, the ArabS; 
Tartars, and occasionally by the Chinese. Page 213, vol. 22d 
BufFon's Nat. Hist. 



OP FARM CATTLE. 123 

for the beauty of his form, the nobleness of his car- 
riage, the rapidity of his march, and the strength, 
spirit, and patience with which he bears the heavi- 
est burdens and the most ex ^essive fatigues. 

Of these powers some cut ous and extraordinary 
instances are recorded. The couriers of Russia 
travel from Petersburgh to Tobolsk, a distance of 
190 2Gm., in twelve days. Their rate of travelling 
is, of course, about one hundred miles a day. What, 
in equestrian phrase, is called a great mover, will, 
without pressing, trot 640 yards in 80 seconds, and, 
if pressed, will go over the same distance in 50 sec- 
onds. In the first case, the rate of moving is 5 feet 
3 inches per second, and in the other 8 feet 5 inch- 
es. The Roman horses, probably descendants from 
Barbs, ran at the rate of 27 feet the second of time ; 
and the British horse Childers is said to have run 
at the rate of 45 feet 5 inches ; and Stirhng, an- 
other British horse, at the rate of 82 1-2 feet per 
second.* This may be regarded as the maximum 
of horse speed. 

The ordinary load in France of a four-wheeled 
wagon, drawn by six horses on a pavement, is 
10,000 pounds; that of a cart, drawn by four hor- 
ses, 5500. With these loads they travel 10 leagues 
a day for six weeks together. A single horse has 
been known to draw 500 pounds at the rate of 140 
yards in 112 seconds; and on the pavements of Lon- 
don a single horse has drawn 6000 pounds for a 
short distance, and 3000 for a considerable distance, 
and with facility. This appears to be the maximum 
of horse power in drawing. 

* British Zoology for 1763-4. In Peru are two races of hor- 
ses (originally Andalusian) well worth the attention of the rich 
amateurs of the United Stales. The names by which these 
races are known are the Parameros and the Aqualillas. See UI- 
loa's Voyage, tome i., page 370. In Chili also is a race which, 
for beauty, action, and hardiness, may be compared with the 
horse of Arabia, and with this advantage, that they are very 
cheap, while those of Arabia are very dear. See Molina's Nat. 
Hist, of Chili, page 505. et sea. 
10 



124 AGRICULTURE. 

Under the pack or saddle, 300 pounds is the or- 
dinary load for a horse ; but, according to M. Thi- 
roux, a dragoon horse carries 340 pounds. This 
includes the weight of the rider and of his arms, 
accoutrements, and baggage. The well-known ex- 
periment of Marshal Saxe shows the maximum of 
horse power in this respect. He directed that a 
strong and vigorous horse, while in motion, should 
be loaded until he fell. The effect was not produ- 
ced until the load amounted to 1200 weight.* 

II. Of the Mule. 

This is the well-known product of a jack and a 
mare, or of a horse and a jenny, the name given to 
a female ass. Their advantages over the horse 
are, that they are more patient of hunger and heat; 
less nice or delicate with regard to their food ; sus- 
tain better, and for a longer time, fatigues of all 
kinds ; carry heavier burdens ; are more sure foot- 
ed ; less liable to sickness, and live to a much 
greater age. In Italy and Spain they are much 
employed in harness, and in the mountainous parts 
of those countries for the saddle. Their value and 
quahties, however, depend principally on the size 
of the jack : if he be large, active, and strong, his 
progeny will be proportionably valuable. Nothing, 
therefore, can be more ill-judged than employing 
small jacks. t 

III. Of the Cow and the Ox. 

It was long supposed that this animal was a na- 
tive of Europe, and that the Auroch, found wild in 
the forests of Poland, was the type of the species. 
The researches into comparative anatomy of Cu- 
vier have overthrown this theory, and men of sci- 
ence now substitute for it another, viz., that the 
cow is a native of Asia, and has thence been trans- 

* See Fourcroy (of the corps of engineers) on the powers of 
the horse, quoted by the Nouveau Cours d'Agriculture. 

t The asses of Arabia, Egypt, and the Barbary Coast are the 
best In Sicily is a race of inferior size, but of great powers 
See Sonnini's Supplement to Buffon on this animal. 



OF FARM CATTLE. 125 

lated to other parts of the globe. Be this fact as 
it may, her uses are so many, so various, and so 
importani, that we cannot hesitate to transfer from 
the horse the distinction bestowed upon him by an 
eloquent writer of the last century, and to pro- 
nounce the cow " the noblest conquest made by man.'*''* 
During two thirds of her life, which may be pro- 
tracted to twelve years, she is annually producing 
her species, and during the same period yielding an 
abundant supply of that beverage so universally 
known and so generally acceptable ; a beverage so 
happily adapted, from its compound nature (part 
animal and part vegetable), to all ages and condi- 
tions, to the young and to the old, to the poor am^ 
to the rich, to the sick and to the sound ; and which, 
in its concrete forms of butter and cheese, has, in 
all civihzed countries, become an article of the first 
necessity. Nor is her value diminished by death ; 
for, having been fatted and prepared for market, her 
flesh forms our most savoury and substantial food ; 
her tallow, in the form of candles, supphes the ab- 
sence of natural light ; her skin, wrought into leath- 
er, furnishes shoes and other articles rendered ne- 
cessary by habit or custom ; her horns are convert- 
ed into combs and lanterns ; her blood is essential 
to the refinement of our sugars ; chymistry draws 
from her hoofs important uses ; her hair is made 
to pad our collars and saddles, and, by entering into 
the construction of our buildings, adds to their 
beauty, comfort, and soUdity. If in her progeny 
(the ox) strength and speed be less combined than 
in the horse, it will be also remembered that his 
subsistence is cheaper, and his labour more contin- 
ued and persevering ; that he is, besides, less liable 
to accidents which diminish his value, and that he 
may even become lame and Wind without eventual 
loss to his owner : for, when prepared for the sham- 

* Buffon's Nat. Hist., voL 22. 



126 AGRICULTURE. 

bles, like his parent, he gives us beef, taliow, &c., 
and those of a superior kind. How important, then, 
is it that this useful animal should be multiplied, 
and that pains should be taken to ameliorate the 
breed. In England and in Holland, wealth, enter- 
prise, and philosophy have combined to exalt the 
character of domestic animals, and the effect has 
been to create many new, artificial, and more per- 
fect races. These are examples we ought to fol- 
low, and these are the countries which can best en- 
able us to do so. 

It has, however, been found that, in temperatures 
either very hot or very cold, the bulk of the cow is 
diminished ; and though it is by no means verified 
that animals secrete milk in proportion to their size, 
still, on other accounts, the largest cows may justly 
be considered the best. Treatment, or the quantity 
and quality of food, has a still more decided influ- 
ence than climate on animal growth and develop- 
ment, and hence it is that, when the cows of Eng- 
land, Holland, or Switzerland are transferred to pas- 
tures less abundant or nutritive than those in which 
they have been reared, or are otherwise put on short- 
er allowance than that to which they have been ac- 
customed, their qualities degenerate, and their pro- 
geny with them. The lesson that these facts incul- 
cate cannot, we believe, be mistaken, and will not, 
we hope, be overlooked. 

IV. Of Sheep. 

Of the different races of sheep, we shall speak 
only of two, those of Spain and England ; because 
in them are best united the two great objects for 
which this animal are reared, t{;ooZ m^dfood. 

The sheep of Spain, generally known under the 
name of Merinoes, are composed of two classes, the 
travelling and the stationary. The former of these 
is again divided into two distinct races, called the 
Leonese and the Sorian; while the latter, composed 
of a numbei of degenerate breeds, are denominated 



OP FARM CATTLE. ^ 127 

Charras. The Leonese and the Sorian winter in 
Estramadura, and are never parked or housed, ex- 
cepting for fifteen days of each year, at the Esqui- 
Icos, or shearing houses, near Segovia. After this 
operation, their march to the mountains begins in 
two columns ; the one to old Castile and the king- 
dom of Leon, the other to the province of Soria, 
and, subsequently, to Navarre or the Pyrenees. 
The preference of the Leonese to the Sorian is suf- 
ficiently estabhshed by the fact that the wool of the 
former sells for one fourth, and sometimes for one 
third more than that of the latter. But even in this 
pre-eminent race there is a marked difference be- 
tween the different troops composing it; those of 
the late Prince of Peace, of Nigretta, of Montaco, 
of Peralez, of Fernando Nunez, and of Tlnfantado, 
are particularly distinguished by the fineness, and 
what, in technical language, is called the nerve of 
their wool.* 

The policy of Great Britain was early directed to 
the amelioration of sheep. It is, however, to Hen- 
ry VIIL and to Elizabeth that the praise is partic- 
ularly due of importing into England sheep of the 
finest Spanish races ; of promulgating rules and reg- 
ulations for their proper management ; and, lastly, of 
commencing that prohibitory system, which has se- 
cured their continuance, and, what is of still greater 
importance, the exclusive fabrication of the wool they 
produce. It was not, however, in the power of laws 
entirely to abrogate, or even materially to alter, the 
effect of climate. That of England did not so much 
favour the production of fine as of long wool, and 
hence it is that the wool of that country is not so 
remarkable for the former as for the latter of these 
qualities. But in all cases, when our object is to 
unite the two great products of wool and flesh, it is 
to the Enghsh breeds we should look for the best 

* The Saxon sheep of the Merino family were not known to 
us when this treatise was written.— J. B. 



128 * AGRICULTURE. 

means of doing it. The flesh of the pure Merino 
is neither so abundant nor so well flavoured as that 
of the mixed races, and, when brought to the great- 
est perfection, the quantity of his wool is less. His 
carcass, when prepared for market, does not exceed 
10 pounds a quarter, and the average weight of his 
fleece will not rise above four pounds ; whereas the 
best English races give 25 pounds the quarter, and 
fleeces weighing 7 and 8 pounds each. 

V. Of the Hog. 

The wild boar is considered the type of this spe- 
cies, of which there are several varieties. The most 
distinguished of these are the Asiatic or Chinese hog, 
the European hog, with long, broad, and pendant ears, 
and the Solipede, or horse-hoofed hog of Sweden.* 
As this animal is principally useful as food, the im- 
provers of the species have aimed only at forming 
a race which, with the least expense and in the 
shortest time, should acquire the greatest bulk and 
the highest degree of fatness. It is on this princi- 
ple that the Chinese hog, which fats promptly and 
easily, but which attains only to a small size, is with 
great propriety mixed with the hog of Europe, which 
acquires a much greater bulk, but is proportionably 
slow and diflJicult of fattening. The result of this 
mixture has been many improved races, at the head 
of which stands the hog of Parma, and those known 
in England by the names of the Bakewell and By- 
field breeds. f 

The weight of the hog at eighteen months or two 
years of age (taking for granted a regular and suf- 
ficient nourishment), varies from two to four hun- 
dred pounds. Buffon mentions a hog killed in Eng- 

* This is the Sas angula indivisa of Linnaeus. Aristotle was 
the first to mention this species, and, after him, Pliny. Linnaeus 
says, it is common in tlpsal and other cantons of Sweden. 
A.menitat. Acad., tome v., page 450. 

t The Berkshire has since come into notice, and has obtained 
a decided preference over other varieties. — J. B. 



OF FARM CATTLE. 129 

land which weighed 850 pounds. Sonnini, his com- 
mentator, mentions another, killed in France, which 
weighed 990 pounds ; and Mr. Jefferson, a third, kill- 
ed in Virginia, which reached the enormous weight 
of 1200 pounds.* 

The value of the hog is increased by their natural 
fecundity, which much exceeds that of any other spe- 
cies of domestic animal. This subject was thought 
worthy the pen of Marshal Vauban, who left behind 
him a manuscript calculation of the offspring of a 
single sow. The paper was read in the Institute of 
France some years ago, was heard with great inter- 
est, and gave an enormous result, but not sufficient- 
ly recollected to be stated here. 

As, from the constitution of the human mind, 
there have been skeptics on all subjects, little and 
great, so on this we find some doubting whether the 
hog did not, from his insatiable appetite, consume 
more during his life than the amount of his value at 
the time of his death. These doubts could not fail 
to engage calculating men in ascertaining this point. 
Their experiments show a profit of eight dollars on 
every hog reared and fed to the age of two years, 
by persons having no farms, and obliged to buy ev- 
ery article going to their nourishment. How much 
greater, then, the profits of those who have the 
means of subsisting them on grasses and roots, 
which cost only the labour of raising 1 

To these specific temarks upon different animals, 
we now proceed to add a few observations on the 
breeding of cattle, and a brief view of the general 
principles on which the fattening of such of them as 
enter into the subsistence of man more peculiarly 
depends. And, 

1st. Of the breeding of Cattle. 

It rarely happens that the breeders of cattle are 
the fatteners of them. The first of these employ- 

* Notes on Virginia. 



130 AGRICULTURE. 

ments seems more particularly to belong to those 
who, other circumstances being favourable, are re- 
mote from markets ; the second to those who, from 
local situation or navigable streams, are convenient 
to markets. In the breeding business two condi- 
tions are indispensable to its success : 1st, that the 
sires of each species be well chosen, because their 
qualities and appearance have much more influence 
on the character of the offspring than those of the 
females ; and, 2d, that, during pregnancy, the fe- 
males be abundantly fed,, and otherwise subjected 
to no hard or injurious treatment.* 

2d. Of the fattening of Cattle. 

The objects in fattening cattle are two, the increase 
of tallow, which is an important article in domestic 
economy ; and the improvement of the fleshy or mus- 
cular parts ; the lean meat of fat animals being better 
flavoured and more nutritive than that of poor ones. 
The means of eff"ecting this object are either living 
vegetables, or those which have been cut, dried, 
and stored for use. Under the first head are the 
whole family of the grasses, and under the second, 
grains, roots, pease, and beans. WUen we resort to 
the first, the only care necessary is, that the provis- 
ion of plants be both abundant and nutritive. Up- 
land pastures, where they unite these conditions, 
best fulfil this intention ; but the fat of cattle thus 
fed, though better distributed (the eff"ect, as we be- 
lieve, of exercise), is less in qiiantity, and of an in- 
ferior quality. The second mode, which is called 
stall feeding, is more difficult and expensive, and re- 
quires great attention to the repose of the animal, 
to his cleanliness, and to the caprices of his appe- 
tite. In England, where this business is most prac- 
tised and best understood, they envelop the head of 

* The inhabitants of the Boullonois, in France, employ the 
mare instead of the horse for all agricultural purposes ; because, 
besides labouring the soil, they give yeaily a foal, wliich they 
Bell at eight months to t4ie graziers at JSjormaiidy. 



OF FARM CATTLE. 131 

the fattening animal in several folds of woollen cloth 
so as to deprive him, in a great degree, of the pow- 
er of hearing, and altogether of that of seeing. The 
doors of his stable are opened but once a day, to 
change his litter, and his food and drink are given 
through loopholes opening into his manger, which 
are afterward immediately closed. With respect 
to feeding, the first rule is to give little at a time 
and often ; because experience has shown that ani- 
mals that eat much in a short time do not fatten so 
well as those which eat less at a time, and more 
slowly and frequently. The second rule is to begin 
the course with cabbages and turnips ; then to em- 
ploy carrots and potatoes ; and, lastly, Indian, oat, 
or barley meal, the marsh bean, or the gray pea. 
These aliments ought to be varied five or six times 
a day, and oftener if convenient ; and, instead of 
always reducing them into flour, there is an advan- 
tage in sometimes boiling them. A little salt, given 
daily, is very useful, and for drink clean water, but 
neither frequently nor in great quantity. Warm 
water, by its temperature, most favours digestion, 
but, if long continued, will enfeeble the stomach. It 
ought, therefore, to be employed only towards the 
end of the term. The fattening is complete when 
the superficial inequalities of the animal, whether 
muscular or bony, are filled up ; when his body pre- 
sents only a round and smooth surface ; when he 
becomes drowsy and inert, dislikes motion, and 
is apparently insensible to everything about him. 
These are the signals for death, and the sooner you 
inflict it after their appearance the better; for, 
should the feeding be farther urged, you run the 
risk of inducing the disease called the melting of the 
grease, or, in more scientific language, the reabsorp- 
tion of it by the blood, which is always fatal. 

They who are at all acquainted with the subject 
on which we write, need hardly be told that there 
are many circumstances independent of food, clean- 
11 



132 AGRICULTURE. 

liness, and quiet, which influence the fattening of 
cattle. We shall mention them sepatately, and add 
a few words to each in explanation. 

1st. Constitution. — If this be not sound and heal- 
thy, no care or expense will be sufficient to cor- 
rect it. The anin al will want appetite, or have too 
much of it, and what it eats will not better its con- 
dition. 

2d. Alteration. — The flesh of unaltered males is 
hard, fibrous, and ill-flavoured, and that of females, 
not spayed, far inferior to the flesh of those which 
have undergone that operation. Where either are 
early and completely altered, the animals become 
more docile, less restless, and fat with great facil- 
ity. 

3d. Temperature. — Whoever makes the experi- 
ment will find that this consideration is very impor- 
tant. The cold of winter, the heat of summer, and 
the capricious character of the spring, are all ad- 
verse to the fattening of cattle, though perhaps not 
equally so. The autumn, on the other hand, long 
and temperate, is the true season for that business, 
not only from the greater abundance of food which 
is then to be found, but because the transpiration 
of the animal is then first checked, and immediately 
converted into tallow. And, 

4th. Age. — Tallow is formed from the surplus 
nourishment given to animals beyond that necessa- 
ry to their mere physical development ; whence it 
follows, that those which have not attained their 
full growth are fatted with difficulty, and only by 
extraordinary means. Calves, for example, can 
only be fatted by great quantities of milk, to which 
must often be added eggs, barley, oat meal, or the 
flour of beans and pease ; and with all this abundance 
and selection of food, they yield little interior fat 
or tallow. Whereas oxen, at six years of age, with 
correspondent treatment, give large quantities of 
that article. Old cattle are also, from loss of teeth, 



DAIRY. 133 

debility of stomach, or other internal disorganiza- 
tion, difficult to fatten. These facts sufficiently in- 
dicate what, on this head, ought to be our practice ; 
to fatten cattle as soon after they have attained their 
growth as possible. Oxen generally attain their 
growth at five or six years, and sheep and hogs at 
two. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

OF THE DAIRY. 

The business of the dairy, besides its connexion 
with the subject of the last chapter, is too impor- 
tant in itself to be omitted in any professed trea- 
tise on Agriculture. We shall therefore consign 
what we have to say upon it to the present chapter. 
A few preliminary observations may be proper. 

Milk is the well-known basis of all the operations 
of the dairy. Few things have more engaged the 
attention of chymists. Boyle, Boerhave, Hoffman, 
and Macquer, all the old school and many of the 
new,* have employed themselves in detecting its 
constituent parts, and in estabhshing their several 
proportions. In the first branch of the inquiry they 
have sufficiently succeeded, and we accordingly 
know that this very important fluid is principally 
composed of an oily matter, of curd, of an essen- 
tial salt called sugar of milk, and of serum. But, 
m the other branch of the inquiry, so various have 
been the results of experiments made on the milk 
of different animals, and of the same animal at dif- 
ferent times, that it continues to be the reproach 
of chymistry ; and we have now before us the ac- 

* HaMer, Brisson, Deyeux, Parmentier, Fourcroy, &c., &;c 



134 AGRICULTURE. 

knowledgment of M, Perthuys, of the French In- 
stitute, that " to determine these proportions with 
the necessary exactness is impossible.'''' Fortunate- 
ly, however, the pride of science is more affected 
by this failure than the interests of agriculture. 

Milk is reducible to two species : that of rumina- 
ting animals, and that of animals which do not ru- 
minate. Milk of the first description abounds in 
cream and in curd, that of the other in sugar and 
whey; and it is on this distinction that the milk of 
cows, sheep, and goats is principally employed for 
the purposes of the dairy, while that of mares and 
asses is, with similar propriety, yielded to the ser- 
vice of medicine.* 

Observation has shown that this secretion is much 
influenced by circumstances of weather, of aliment, 
and of age. A stormy day lessens its quantity and 
alters its quality; bad or deficient food has a sim- 
ilar but greater effect, and the fact is well known 
that very young and very old cows give poor milk. 
Mild weather, on the other hand, promotes the se- 
cretion, and soft, nourishing aliments, easy of diges- 
tion and in sufficient quantity, make it redundant. 

A fact established by the labours of Messrs. De- 
yeux and Parmentier, and long before known to the 
dairy maid, is, that the milk first drawn is serous; 
that that which succeeds is less so, and that what 
are commonly called strippings are nearly all cream. 

Having premised these facts, we proceed to the 
business of butter-making, the theory of which is 
reducible to the following heads : 

1st. Butter is found suspended in milk, in the 
form of a white and liquid oil. This suspension is 
the effect of the saccharine matter and the curd, 
which are among the component parts of milk. 

* The medical uses of asses' milk have come down to us 
from Hippocrates and Galen. The milk of mares is only estab- 
lished in the pharmacopoeia of Tartary, where, according to the 
reports made by travellers, it is food, physic, and brandy. 



DAIRY. 135 

2d. In a state of repose and in a cool tempera- 
ture, this oily matter separates itself, in a great de- 
gree, from the serum and curd, mounts to the sur- 
face, and there forms a pellicle of greater or less 
density, 

3d. When in contact with atmospheric air, it 
draws from it a portion of oxygen, and thence ac- 
quires a yellow colour and a disposition to harden. 

4th. Agitation and pressure are necessary to sep- 
arate it from the serum and curd which may have 
mounted with it. And, 

5th. To correct its tendency to decomposition, 
which first shows itself by a rancid smell and taste, 
it must be subjected to the action of heat, or a por- 
tion of the muriate of soda must be incorporated 
with it. From this theory of butler-making, it will 
be easy to deduce the rules necessary to practice. 

1st. The formation of cream is, as we have seen, 
a process of nature which we best promote by giv- 
ing to our dairies a northern exposition ; by keep- 
ing them perfectly clean ; because filth, besides other 
mischief, is predisposed to fermentation, and is, of 
course, productive of heat; and, lastly, by so form- 
ing our pans as to make them narrow at the bottom 
and wide at the top, to the end that they may oflfer 
to the atmosphere the largest possible surface.* 

2d. The separation of the butter from the milk, 
with which it is still connected, is our own labour, 
and must be carefully and thoroughly performed. 
This is called churning, and ought to be only a mod- 
erate and continued agitation. If the movement be 
loo slowor frequently interrupted, the effect intend- 
ed is not produced ; and if hurried and violent, the 
cream is too much heated, and yields a white and 
curdlike butter. When this operation is well per- 
formed, the butter is found adhering to the staff and 
flyers of the churn, is of an agreeable taste and col- 
our, and of a certain degree of consistency. 

* See, in Fourcroy's Chymistry, vol. ix , the effects of cover« 
mg milk-pans. 



136 AGRICULTURE. 

3d. To increase this last, and more perfectly to 
discharge the milk from the butter, the latter is 
again subjected to frequent pressure and washing in 
cold water, which, readily uniting with the milk, 
carries it along with it. • 

4th. What now remains is to employ the means 
necessary to its preservation. These are of two 
kinds ; a small portion of common salt, well dried 
and pulverized, may be wrought into the mass, and 
distributed as equally as possible; or the fresh mass, 
subjected to a demi-fusion, will throw up a frothy 
and feculent matter, which must be carefully taken 
off, and which, if neither evaporated nor skimmed 
in this way, nor absorbed by the salt in the other, 
would produce the rancidity of which we have al- 
ready spoken. The butter of Prevalais, the finest 
in Europe, is prepared after this last mode. The 
secret was long and well kept, but was at length di- 
vulged by M. Tessier, about the year 1809. 

Of cheese-making. 

The curd of milk is known to be the basis of 
cheese, and the theory of making this may be brought 
under three heads. 

1st. Turning the milk, or separating the curd from 
the other constituents of milk, by a chymical pro- 
cess, or by permitting it to separate spontaneously. 

2d. Expressing ivhat remains of these from the curd 
by mechanical means ; and, 

3d. Seasoning the mass, by the introduction of 
some matter of conservative quality, as muriate of 
soda, sage, balm, aromatic clover, &c., &c. 

These principles maybe much varied, and, under 
different managements, will produce cheeses of 
very different species, which may, however, be gen- 
eralized as follows : 

1st. Those in the fabrication of which the coagu- 
lation of the milk is spontaneous. This species re- 
tains a great degree of softness, is peculiarly liable 
to decomposition, and is therefore used in a shor* 



DAIRY. 137 

time after being made. Siich is the cream cheese, 
and the cheeses of Viry, Mont Didier, and Mont 
d'Or. 

2d. Those which have been deprived of their se- 
rosity by means only of compression. Such are 
the cheeses of Holland, of Cantal in France, &c. 
And, 

3d. Those to which have been applied, not only 
the action of the press, but of fire. Such are the 
cheeses known by the name of Gruyere, Parmesan, 
and Cheshire.* 

Of these different species it is our intention to 
speak only of the second and third, because these 
form the cheeses of commerce, and have most con- 
nexion with the public interest. 

Turning the milk, which is the first step in the 
process, may be effected by many different sub- 
stances, such as vegetable acids and astringents ; 
but the matter generally, if not universally employ- 
ed, is either the second stomach of the calf or its 
contents, which are called rennet. A portion of 
either put into the milk, which must be left in a 
state of repose, will in a few hours produce the de- 
sired separation. The quantity of rennet employed 
is not, however, a matter of indifference. If too 
much be used, the curd will remain in parcels, with- 
out consistency, and altogether deprived of the 
cream of the milk. If, on the other hand, the quan- 
tity employed be too small, the separation of the 
curd from the serum will not be complete. The 
exact quantity necessary is an affair of experience, 
which only a number of trials on different portions 
of milk enables one to regulate and adjust. A cir- 

* The Schabzieger (cheese made in Switzerland) is of a dif 
ferent kind. Instead of the curd, the Swiss employ the sedi 
ment of the serum, and macerate in it a few of the leaves, stems, 
or seeds of the trifolium oderatum, or blue clover. It is this 
which gives to the Schabzieger its peculiar and highly aromatic 
taste and smell. 



138 AGRICULTURE. 

cumstance of still greater importance, but of less 
difficulty, is that of determining the character of 
the rennet. If this emit any strong or disagreeable 
odour, it is bad, and should not be employed, as it 
will infallibly communicate to the curd its own of- 
fensive qualities. 

As soon as the c.urd is separated, it must be bro- 
ken into pieces, so that the serum, which is now col- 
lected into little cells, may have the means of es- 
caping. By this operation the curd is reduced to a 
paste, which acquires coherency as fast as the fluid 
is separated from it. This paste is now put into 
moulds, and compressed until a farther portion of 
the moisture is expelled. When this effect is pro- 
duced the curd is again divided, squeezed by the 
hand, replaced in the moulds, and subjected to heavy 
weights, which expel the last remaining drops of 
the whey. If the weather be warm, the cheeses 
will swell and cavities appear on their surfaces; 
an effect of the disengagement of air, which is the 
sign of interior fermentation, and the signal for re- 
moving the cheeses to the drying room, and begin- 
ning the application of salt to their surfaces and 
sides. This application must be continued daily, 
and the cheeses be turned as often, so that the salt 
be equally distributed throughout them. If they 
present a dry surface, they should be wetted with 
salted whey ; and if a frothy appearance, they should 
be carefully wiped and the outer rind scraped with 
a blunt knife. They will soon acquire the neces- 
sary hardness and the proper colour.* 

In these operations we have described the mode 
of making cheeses deprived of their serosity by 
compression only. What we have yet to say ap- 
plies to those in the making of which fire is a ne- 
cessary agent. The milk destined for these is 

* The Italians employ saffron, and the English the bixa, to 
colour their cheeses. These are only expedients to make next 
cheese pass for old in the market. - 



DAIRY. 139 

placed in a boiler and on a moderate fire ; the ren- 
net is then applied, and the milk stirred without in- 
terruption. The moment the action of the rennet 
becomes apparent, the boiler is taken from the fire 
and the contents left undisturbed. A coagulation 
soon takes place, when a portion of the serum must 
be removed, and the remaining portion be left to 
boil the curd, which is seen floating in distinct par- 
cels or lumps. The boiler must now be replaced 
on the fire, and the mass be continually stirred 
until the curd takes a degree of coherency. When 
this effect is produced the boiling is complete, and 
the curds, collected into masses, are taken from the 
serum and committed to moulds. The press is now 
employed and the salt applied, as in the preceding 
directions. During three weeks or a month, the 
moulds are gently and gradually tightened, and, so 
soon as a superabundant moisture appears on the 
surface of the cheese, the salting is discontinued.* 
Various means have been used to improve the 
qualities of cheese, besides those employed in the 
process of fabrication. Though we give little credit 
to these devices, still, as others may have more 
faith than ourselves, it may not be improper to men- 
tion some of them. The most simple and most 
easily employed are, rubbing them with oil, with 
butter not salted, with the lees of wine, and some- 
times enveloping them with linen dipped in vinegar, 
or in new hay moistened with warm water. An- 
other, more compounded and not so easily obtained, 
has fallen within the scope of our reading. It is 
given by M. Chazotte, inspector of mines to the 
Duke of Parma, who says of it " that cheeses the 
most dry and of the worst quality, if moistened daily 
for twenty or thirty days with a liquor composed of 
strong vinegar and alkalized nitre, and which en- 
tirely resembles the foliated earth of tartar, known 

* This appearance shows that the absorption of salt is com- 
plete. 



140 AGRICULTURE. 

to cliyrnists and physicians, will become excellent." 
What on this head is suggested by our own expe- 
rience is, that, if not made better, they are assured- 
ly best preserved by dark apartments, neither very 
dry nor very humid, and by shelves or tables fre- 
quently washed, and not containing in them any res- 
inous matter. 

Of the residuum or whey left after cheese-ma- 
king. 

This is not without its uses, and some of them im- 
portant. The medicinal virtues of whey have been 
long acknowledged and much celebrated, and ap- 
pear to be beyond even the reach of time, which 
has neither abated their force nor diminished their 
fame ; for, when all other remedies fail, the modern 
valetudinarian, like the ancient, is dismissed to 
mountain air and whey diet. The lives of literary 
men furnish many striking instances of its nourish- 
ing as well as its medicinal properties. Boerhave 
persevered in the use of it, to the exclusion of other 
food, for many months; and Ferguson for many 
years. Its effect in fattening hogs is universally 
known. This nutritive property exists in the mu- 
cus sugar with which it abounds ; the extraction of 
which has long employed the science and industry 
of the Swiss cantons.* 

* See Lichtenstein and Rocol on the sugar of milk. The 
maximum of its quantity l-28th ; the minimum l-60th. Scheele 
has shown that this saccharine matter differs essentially frona 
the «! gar of canes. See Fourcroy's Chymistry. vol ii. 



ORCHARDS. 341 



CHAPTER XIV. 

OP ORCHARDS. 

These are generally composed of apple, pear, 
peach, and cherry trees. The apple has been known 
from the most remote antiquity, and, from the names • 
given to it, would appear to have been a native of 
many different countries.* 

About the close of the 15th century, the varieties 
of this fruit in Europe were multiplied to the num- 
ber of forty-six,t and it is not to be doubted but 
that four additional centuries have much increased 
this amount. While, however, the line was length- 
ening in this direction, it was shortening in another ; 
for, according to the philosophy of the present day, 
vegetables, like animals, perish not only individu- 
ally, but by whole races. J 

The uses of the apple are various. Besides those 
of the table, it yields the well-known liquor called 
cider, which is again convertible into brandy. We 
have, in our country, orchards which annually pro- 
duce from five to eight hundred dollars. In the 
view of profit, therefore, fruit is an important ob- 
ject to the agriculturist.^ 

* The Syrian, Scanian, Pelusian, &c. About one hundred 
years before Christ, the Romans began to call them after par- 
ticular men who had been instrumental in removing them ; as 
the Appian, or Pomme D'Apiof the French, after Claudius Ap- 
pius. 

t See Olivier de Serres. 

X See Davy's Elements. 

i) One of the most important uses of the apple in the present 
dtfy, and to which it was not formerly applied, or but partially, 
is the feeding and fattening of pigs and other farm-stock. For 
this purpose alone, apple-orchards now constitute one of the 
most profitable objects of farm culture— J. B. 



142 AGRICULTDRE. 

The pear is less difficult with regard to soil than 
the apple-tree. We have seen it grow well in light 
sand ; and a part of Normandy, called Bocage, the 
soil of which is a stiff clay, is renowned for its 
pears, and for a liquor called Perry, made from 
their juices.* 

Oliver de Serres counted sixly-two varieties of 
the pear; and, according to the treatise of M. Van 
Mons, published in 1808, the number then cultivated 
in Europe amounted to more than six hundred. Of 
these we shall name a few, in the order in which 
they ripen. The Muscat I'Allemand, in May ; the 
St. John and the Bergamot of Holland, in June ; the 
Petit Muscat and the Cuisse Madame, or Jargonelle, 
in July; the Salviat and the Bon Chretien d'Ete 
Musque, in August ; the Beurre Gris, in Septem- 
ber ; the Bergamot Suisse and Messire Jean, in Oc- 
tober; the Bon Chretien Turc and the fall Berga- 
mot, in November ; the Chasserais, the Beurre 
d'Hiver, the Merveille d'Hiver, the Vergouleuse, the 
St. Germain, and the Sarrussin, in December.:|: 

* When made without the addition of water, Perry is an ex- 
cellent liquor, and keeps well in bottles. 

f We offer this list as a direction to those who may wish to 
obtain the best succession of crops, and have therefore retained 
the names under which they are known abroad. 

X The pears here named belong to the old catalogue ; the 
quality of the new kinds, named by Van Mons, not then being 
known to us. The new varieties have since been introduced and 
fruited, and have added much to the value and variety of thi.s 
fiuit. We recommend the following, embracing mostly new 
varieties, as a better selection than the one named in the text. 
They should be added to old collections, and in new plantations 
may be advantageously introduced as substitutes for old, and, 
in many cases, degenerated varieties. Beginning with the early 
varieties, we recommend the Citron des Carmes, Jargonelle. 
Summer Rose, &c., ripening in July and August ; the Belle et 
Bonne, Vergaleu, or White Doyenne, Flemish Beauty, Neill, 
&c., as ripening in September : the Autumn Bergamot, Aston 
Town, Capiaumont, Beurre d' Gil il, Duchesse d'Angouleme, Ma- 
ria Louise, &c., ripening in October; the Forello, Glout JVIor- 
ceau, Napoleon, Colmar, &c., ripening in November ; the 



ORCHARDS. 143 

The cherry-tree is said to have been first brought 
to Europe by Lucullus, from Asia Minor. A Ger- 
man amateur (the Baron de Truckless) has brought 
together, in \\\> garden in Franconia, sixty-five spe- 
cies of it. Besides the raw fruit, the cherry is much 
employed in confitures, and gives also three liquors 
in much request, the Kirt' ii; awasser of Germany, 
the Marrasquin of Venice, and a distilled but unfer- 
mented liquor of the Rhine, having nothing in it 
spirituous, and retaining only the watery and aro- 
matic parts of the fruit. The cherry-tree dreads 
cold or wet soils, nor does it succeed well in those 
which are either hot or dry. Its outer skin differs 
in its organization from that of other trees ; the 
fibres are longer and stronger, and sometimes so 
bind the woody part as to obstruct its growth. 
Hence the practice of making shallow and longitu- 
dinal cuts through the outer bark; a practice, how- 
ever, which, like pruning, ought to be skilfully per- 
formed, otherwise the wound becomes gummy, 
chancrous, and incurable.* 

The peach-tree is a native of Persia, where it 
grows without cultivation. Its varieties are very- 
numerous, all of which are much influenced by cli- 
mate and soil. In Europe it is only in the south 
of France, in Italy, and in Spain, where you find 
peaches that have reached the perfection of which 
this fruit is susceptible ; and in similar climates here 
we may, no doubt, have fruit equally good. Our 
own climate (that of New- York) does not appear to 
be favourable to its production. Our trees are often 
sickly, and our peaches generally sour and watery, 
and entirely destitute of that aroma which forms 
the great excellence of this fruit. After these gcn- 

NelJs, Passe Colmar, Bezi Vait, Beurre d'Aremburgh, &c., 
ripening in December; the Easter Beurre, Beurre Ranee, 
Chaumohtelle, &c., as late winter and spring pears; and the 
Cattilac, Chaptal, Bezi d'Hui, as good bakirig or stewing 
pears. — J. B. 

* Cut only the outer or circular bark. — J. B. 



144 AGRICULTURE. 

eral remarks, we proceed to what is more particu- 
larly the object of this chapter. 

It hus been said, and, v> e think, with much good- 
sense, that "every farm< i- ought to raise his own 
trees," because, besides the risk, inconvenience, 
and expense of bringing our plants from abroad, we 
have, in pursuing that mode of supply, to encoun- 
ter the tricks and blunders of nurserymen, and the 
ill consequences which follow a want of analogy 
between the soil in which the plants were raised 
and that to which they are to be transferred. The 
first step, therefore, towards obtaining a good or- 
chard, is to create a good nursery. The situation 
most favourable for this is a piece of level ground, 
defended from cold and violent winds either by 
natural or artificial means, and which, in composi- 
tion, is neither wet nor dry, and of only middling 
fertility. This condition of the soil is a circum- 
stance of much importance, and ought to be rigor- 
ously observed, because the vessels of young trees 
growing in rich soils take a size proportioned to 
the quantity of sap they receive and circulate ; and 
if their situation be changed for the worse, the 
quantity of the sap being necessarily diminished, 
the vessels become rigid and unhealthy, and unable 
to carry to the extremity of the branches the nour- 
ishment required by them. The ground, selected 
on these principles, must be securely fenced, thor- 
oughly ploughed and harrowed, freed from stones 
and the roots of perennial plants, and then thrown 
up into three or four feet ridges, on which you will 
sow and cover your apple and pear seed, and plant 
your cherry and peach stones. It will now be use- 
ful to roll the beds for the purpose of bringing the 
soil and the seeds everywhere into contact; after 
which they may be covered with clean straw for 
the winter. In the spring your young apple and 
pear-trees will show themselves, and afterward 
your cherries and peaches. The treatment to all 



l/ORCHARDS; 145 

will be the same : they must be thinned to the dis- 
tance of fifteen or twenty inches from each other, 
kept perfectly free from weeds, and, if the weather 
be hot and dry, occasionally watered. They re- 
quire only a repetition of this process, with the ad- 
dition of a little careful pruning, till they have at- 
tained the height of seven or eight feet, when they 
are fit for grafting.* It is generally known that by 
this operation we continue any given species of 
fruit ; but a fact with which the public is less ac- 
quainted is, that if the graft be also grafted, the 
product is improved both in quantity and quality ; 
and, it is to be presumed, will continue to improve 
under every new and similar operation. Grafts, to 
be well chosen, should be taken from wood of the 
present year, from young and healthy races, and 
accommodated to the future use of the fruit. If, 
for instance, your object be cider-making, you will 
take your grafts from the crab or the redstreak ;f 
and if for barrelling, from the pippin, the Spitzen- 
berg, the greening, or the Swaur. As we only 
speak of grafting incidentally, it will not be expect- 
ed that we should go into a dissertation upon that 
art, nor to elucidate the many divisions and sub- 
divisions which technical men have made of it.| 
It is enough for us to say, that, of all these different 
modes, the scion and the slit is the simplest and the 

* Budding is generally preferred to grafting in nursery estab 
lishraents, because it gives a longer season for propagating, is 
more expeditiously performed, more certain, especially with 
stone fruit, and may be performed upon stbeks a year or two 
earlier than grafting. Budding should be performed when the 
stock is from the size of a pipestem to the size of the little fin- 
ger.— J. B. 

+ The redstreak is no longer with us in a healthy condition; 
it has degenerated. The Harrison, winesap, pippin, and crab, 
are our best cider fruits. — J. B. 

X The two grand divisions are by approach and hy scion. Their 
varieties and sub-varieties, nearly a hundred, are known by 
the names of ancients and moderns, as Varro, Virgil, Columella, 
Maiherbes, Duhamel, Bosc, Michaux, &c., &c 



146 AGRICULTURE. 

best. When your grafts have acquired some inches 
in length, it may be well to rub off all the buds 
which have pushed below them on the stem, and 
perhaps a few of those which have appeared above 
them ;* and if the grafts themselves put out any 
lateral shoots, spare them till the succeeding year, 
when you are called to regraft such as have failed, 
and to furnish props to those which are feeble, or 
crooked, or ill-directed. 

Planting is the next operation in the process ; but, 
as some preliminary measures, on which its suc- 
cess will much depend, are yet untouched, we will 
begin with these ; and, 

1st. Of the soil chosen for your intended orchard. 
It is generally admitted that fruit-trees do well in a 
warm, friable, moist, and deep soil ; that they suc- 
ceed but indifferently in one that is cold and stiff, 
and that they altogether fail in one either very dry 
or very wet ; but a fact less known, though not less 
established, is, that the subsoil has a powerful in- 
fluence on the health and prosperity of plants. If 
this be rock, or what is called hardpan, whatever 
be the surface, the tree and its fruits are much de- 
teriorated ; nor will the remedy, sometimes resort- 
ed to, of cutting off the pivot or plunging-root, and 
leaving the tree to subsist by those which are mere- 
ly lateral, be sufficient. It may palliate, but it does 
not cure. 

2d. Next to soil, exposition is most important. In 
this climate northern and western expositions are 
bad ; because the tree has least time for vegetation, 
its juices are less concocted, and it is itself most 

* Many grafts are annually lost by removing the upper buds, 
shoots, and limbs. It throws too much nourishment into the 
graft, which dies of repletion. Having omitted in the text to 
say anything of the different stems employed in grafting, we here 
reinark, what all amateurs in fruit-trees ought to know, that sci 
ons, whether of apple or pear trees, grafted on quince stocks, 
give fairer fruit and much sooner than if grafted on apple or 
pear stocks ; but the trees are short -hved. 



ORCHARDS. 147 

exposed to the action of high winds. These re- 
marks will sufficiently indicate why eastern and 
southern expositions are favourable, and ought to 
be preferred. But the rule these facts suggest can- 
not be made absolute, since many persons occupy 
only the northern and western sides of hills. In 
these situations, therefore, the course most appro- 
ved by theory and experience is, to plant only trees 
which are late in forming or maturing their fruit. 

3d. The preparation of the soil is not to be neg- 
lected, and any summer crop in rows and well cul- 
tivated forms a good one. With these remarks we 
return to our general head of planting. 

The /orm in which your trees stand is not matter 
of indifference. The quincunx is recommended as 
giving to them that position which is relatively best ; 
but the caize (straight hues intersecting each other), 
better admitting the movements of the plough, is gen- 
erally preferred. Whichever of the two be adopted, 
the holes indicated in a former part of this section 
must be made accordingly, and ought to be six feet 
wide and as many long, and two feet deep. The 
advantages of these will abundantly repay the extra 
labour they require, as we find by M. Chalumeau's 
experiments on peach-trees, from which we make 
the following extract : " Four peach-trees, resem- 
bhng each other, as to size and vigour of growth, as 
much as possible, were planted: No. 1 in a hole 
three feet square ; No. 2 in a hole two feet square ; 
and Nos. 3 and 4 in holes eighteen inches square. 
The soil and exposition similar. No. 1 has every 
year given the most abundant crops, and the rela- 
tive sizes of the trees now are as follows : the stem 
of No. 1, 18 feet high and eight inches in circum- 
ference : that of No. 2, nine feet high and five and a 
half mches m circumference ; No. 3, six feet high, 
and three inches eight lines in circumference ; and 
No. 4, five and a half feet high, and three inches in 
circumference." Here is a difference between the 
12 



148 AGRICULTURE. 

largest and smallest of five inches in circumference 
and 12 1-2 feet in height ; a most decisive proof of 
the advantages of trenching.* 

When the holes are thus prepared, and at a dis- 
tance not less than 30 feet from each other, and a 
portion of the soil, is mixed with marl, the mud of 
ponds, or bog-earth, returned to them, you may be- 
gin to take up your young trees from the nursery ; 
and, in doing this, you must be careful not to wound 
or otherwise injure their roots or their bark ; nor 
must they suffer any topping or pruning. Three 
hands are necessary to planting; one to place and 
range the trees, and the others to fill in the remain- 
ing part of the earth, mixed as above mentioned. 
It now only remains to fix short poles (technically 
called tutors) near them, to which they may be tied, 
and by means of which their true vertical position 
may be preserved. 

The year after planting, and in the month of Feb- 
ruary,! when there is no circulation of sap, you vv^ill 
do well to begin to give to the heads of your young 
trees that form which you wish them ultimately to 
take. The more circular you make them, the better, 
always taking care to lop off those branches which 
do already, or may hereafter, cross others having a 
proper direction. This proper direction will be gen- 
erally horizontal, but with a slight curve ; an opin- 
ion requiring, perhaps, a little explanation. All 
straight branches produce what are usually termed 
gourmands, or gluttons, giving little if any fruit 
themselves, and exceedingly exhausting the tree. 
Curved branches, on the other hand, rarely produce 
gourmands ; and, when the season is favourable, give 
much fruit. The observation of these facts, made 

* The apple, pear, and cherry, occupying more room than the 
peach, require proportionate trenches. 

t The last of June, after the tree has made its first growths 
and is charged with elaborated sap, is recommended as the best 
time for performing this operation. — J. B. 



I 



ORCHARDS. 149 

long since, and probably growing out of the man- 
agement of espaliers, first suggested the practice of 
bending straight branches by artificial means. The 
cflfect entirely justified the theory ; these straight and 
barren branches, bent into nearly half a circle,* 
changed their character with their shape, and be- 
came very productive. But there is a time for this 
as for all other things, and, unless the ex|)eriment be 
began about the first of July and continued to Sep- 
tember, it will fail, because it is only within that 
period that fruit buds are formed. f 

As your trees advance in age, they will require 
vruning. Suckers must be removed, and dead and 
dying limbs taken off. For this purpose a hand- 
saw, a chissel, a mallet, and a gardener's knife, are 
the instruments to be used : all others must be pro- 
scribed, and particularly the axe, which, in the hands 
of folly and ignorance, has been so mischievous to 
fruit-trees. Wounds, if large, should always be 
covered from drying winds, from moisture, and even 
from air. In gummy trees, as the peach or the cher- 
ry, this precaution is indispensable, and the neglect 
of it a disgrace, since the best covering is that com- 
posed of cow-dung and clay ; materials costing no- 
thing, and always at hand. 

On this subject we have but one other rule to 
give, and that is, to open the ground about the roots 
of your trees in the fall, to the influences of the air, 
rain, and frost. The last of these, besides promo- 
ting vegetation, destroys many insects in the chrys- 
alis state, which, if left undisturbed, would in the 
spring be very injurious. Another part of the same 
rule is to cover with straw, in the spring, the ground 
you make bare in the fall ; the object of which is to 
prevent evaporation by intercepting the rays of the 

* More than half a circle will obstruct the circulation of sap 
and destroy the limb. 

t The circulation of the sap is then slowest. See Art. Cour 
bure, Nouveau Cours d'Agriculture, vol. iv. 



160 GARDENING. 

sun, and thus securing to the roots the moisture ne- 
cessary to their welfare. 



CHAPTER XV. 

THE KITCHEN GARDEN. 

The first page of history informs us that, imme- 
diately after the creation, man was placed in a gar- 
den, " to dress and to keep it." Nor will the wis- 
dom of this designation be doubted by those who 
duly consider the effects, moral and physical, of the 
occupation it enjoins. " Emollit mores, nee sinet 
esse feros," is an observation of great antiquity and 
acknowledged truth ; to which might be added oth- 
ers of equal authority and importance, viz. : that it 
expands the mind, strengthens the body, tranqml- 
lizes the spirit,* and begets habits of order, dili- 
gence, temperance, economy, and observation.! 

Thus recommended (apart from its pecuniary 

* Lord Bacon calls it " the purest of human pleasures, the 
greatest refreshment to the spirits of man, without which build- 
ings and palaces are but gross handiworks." 

f Of those among the ancients who may be considered as 
authorities, Cicero is perhaps alone in regarding the retirement 
of rural life as tending rather to relax than to invigorate the 
mental faculties. — De Orat., i., 2. Pliny, on the other hand, re 
marks, " Experieris non Dianatn magis montibus, quam M'nsr- 
vam inerrare." We need scarcely quote the well-known decis- 
ions of Horace and Virgil. " Scriptorum chorus omnis amat 
nemus, et fugit urbes." " Rura mihi et regni placeant," <&c. 
The controversy, after all, is one of words; for besides that 
there may have been some peculiarity of mind in Cicero, calling 
for an uncommon kind or degree of stimulus, it must not be 
forgotten that his great and distinguishing talent could only 
receive development and exercise from the presence and agita 
tions of a crowd. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 251 

profits), it will not be thought extraordinary that 
gardening, considered both as a science and an art 
should have engaged the attention of able and learn- 
ed men, who, at different times and in various lan- 
guages, have written upon it. To collect and 
methodize their remarks and experiments, to illus- 
trate their different doctrines, and to adapt the whole 
to our own climate, soil, and social condition, form 
the leading objects of the present work. 

Another important, though a secondary object, is 
to bring what is known and necessary on so copious 
a subject into the smallest compass, persuaded, as 
we are, that the highest service that can now be 
rendered to science is to shorten and illustrate its 
processes, and thus render attainable by many what 
otherwise would be known only to few. 

Gardens are technically classed under five heads : 
the Kitchen Garden, the Fruit Garden, the Flower 
Garden, the Botanic Garden, and the Landscape, 
commonly, but improperly, called the English Gar- 
den. These have many principles in common, but 
some which are peculiar, and they consequently 
call for different kinds of culture, and different sorts 
and degrees of knowledge in the cultivator. We 
shall treat here only of the two first named ; and 
begin with the Kitchen Garden. 

This is the description of garden most important 
to man, because employed in the production of ar- 
ticles of the first necessity, and common to every 
class of society. Several conditions are, however, 
necessary to enable it to fulfil this intention. Such 
are, suflicient fences, a good soil, a favourable ex- 
position, and abundant water. The^r^^, to be suffi- 
cient, ought to have the property not only of ex- 
cluding the depredations of man and beast, but that 
also of shutting out vermin, and even some of the 
tribes of larger insects: The second should be 
deep, rich, friable, and moist (not wet), because this 
description of soil is best adapted to the mass of 



152 G4ADENING. 

garden vegetables, and not positively unfriendly to 
any. The third should have an inclination to the 
south and east, as this exposure will best secure 
that temperature both of the earth and of the aij 
which is most favourable to vegetation ; and of the 
fourth we need only remark, that it is emphatically 
called the life of plants.* 

The size and shape of this species of garden are 
not indifferent, but admit no positive rules for their 
regulation, because depending on circumstances 
rarely alike in two cases ; the nature of the ground, 
and the wants or abihty of the occupier. On these 
heads, therefore, we only say that a parallelogram 
and a square are the forms most approved, because 
most susceptible of a cheap, and easy, and regular 
arrangement into beds ; and that tivo acres] devoted 
to the culture of table vegetables will furnish an 
abundant supply for even a large family. 

With these few prehminary remarks, we proceed 
to what is more pecuharly the object of this branch 
of our work, viz., an enumeration of the articles 
selected for garden culture, and the means best cal- 
culated for bringing them to that degree of perfec- 
tion of which they may be respectively susceptible. 

The Artichoke {Cynara Scolymus). The proto- 
type of this race is a native of the south of Europe, 
and rarely to be found in northern climates, except- 
ing in botanical collections ; the varieties produced 
by culture are much preferable to the parent plant.J 

* Water impregnated with minerals is not merely useless, 
but injurious to vegetation. Such is often the water found in 
wells, and sometimes in rivulets. River and rain water may 
always be safely employed, as well from their constituent parts 
as from their temperature. Every garden should have a pond to 
receive and hold r» in water. 

t The author, doubtless, would include potatoes, and esculent 
garden vegetables of every kind in this estimate. 

% Miller considers the globe artichoke, which he calls the 
Cynara Hortensis, as a distinct species from the Cynara Scoly- 
mus, and rests his opinion on the difference between the two 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 153 

These varieties are numerous, and take their dis- 
tinctive names from their colour: as the green, the 
red, the violet, and the white. The first of these 
(the green) is the best, as well on account of its 
larger size, as its better flavour and greater ability 
to resist cold and wet weather; the constant and 
most formidable enemy of the whole family. 

This plant is propagated in two vvays, by seed and 
by suckers ; by the former when it is desired to ob- 
tain new races, and by the latter when we wish to 
continue old ones. The first method is occasionally 
practised by amateurs, and is that by which the 
plant may be soonest naturalized, and made to attain 
its highest perfection. The second is preferred by 
practical men seeking immediate profit, and risking 
as little as possible on experiments.* 

If the first method be adopted, select sound and 
fresh seeds, and, in the month of February, sow 
them in pots filled with rich and mellow earth, and 
plunged in a hotbed. Each pot may receive three 
seeds. The young plants will soon show them- 
selves, and, by watering and ventilating them at 
proper times and in a moderate degree, will he fit 
for transplanting in April. If the second method be 
preferred, after having carefully uncovered and 
cleaned the stems of the mother plants, take from 
them, with the hand, as many sprouts or sutkers 
as may be wanted, remembering that those near- 
est the heart are the best ; and taking care also to 
crop the sprouts close to the stem, and always be- 
low what gardeners call the nut, and without chafing 
or otherwise injuring the fibres which surround this, 
and which are destined to become the roots of the 
future artichoke. 

Such are the two modes of obtaining plants, to 

in relation to bulk and to shape. The later, and, we think, the 
better opinion is, that this difference is the effect only of culture. 
* The average loss of plants from the seed-bed is one half, 
that from suckers only one tenth.— Cours d'Ag. 



154 GARDENING. 

which we now add the subsequent management 
common to both. 

In hot and dry chmates, the soil best adapted to 
the artichoke is that which is most retentive of 
moisture, and vice versa. In our own particular 
climate, which may be regarded as a medium be-' 
tween the two extremes, a soil neither very wet nor 
very dry is to be preferred. A portion of this, of 
such extent as the required number of plants may 
render necessary, which has been previously and 
thoroughly worked and manured, should be raked 
smooth, and so scored, both lengthwise and across, 
as to form a number of beds or squares of three feet 
— in the centre of each of which a hole is to be dib- 
bled and an artichoke placed — remembering, how- 
ever, before you do so (if the plants are seedlings), 
to pinch off the tap or pivot root,* and to leave 
as much of the native soil as the lateral roots will 
hold together, and (whether seedhngs or suckers) 
to press with your hand or your dibbler the earth 
into close contact with the buried part of the plant, 
leaving only the heart uncovered. When this is 
done, sow rows of lettuce seed in the intervals be- 
tween the artichokes; which, besides giving an ad- 
ditional and useful article to your crop, will best 
protect from the ravages of the grub that which is 
your primary object ; for many observations concur 
in showing that, where the grub has the power of 

* The facts on which this theory rests are two. 1st. That it 
is the peculiar office of the pivot to give sustenance to the stem 
and leaves, and of the lateral roots to supply the suckers and 
heads, which are the things we want. Now if the pivot be re- 
moved, the lateral roots acquire an increased vigour, and the 
head is made better in proportion. " M. Feburier, of Rennes, 
planted two rows of artichokes, the one with pivot roots, the 
other deprived of them. The former threw out leaves so long 
and numerous, that it became necessary to thin them ; but their 
fruit was neither abundant nor fine, while the latter grew well, 
and gave fruit much better and earlier than the other." — Cou a 
d Agri., art. Artichoke. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 155 

choosing, it never fails to prefer the lettuce to the 
artichoke. 

• The processes of watering and hoeing are next in 
order of time, and are either multiplied, or decreas- 
ed, or discontinued, according to circumstances. 
The rules which regulate these labours are two : if 
the weather be dry, and you wish to hasten the ma- 
turity of the fruit, you must hoe often and water 
every other day. If, on the contrary, the weather 
be wet, and you have other beds to draw from for 
the supply of the current year, hoe seldom and do 
not water at ail ; and by this management you may 
either quicken or retard the progress of the plant. 

To have large artichokes, you must leave only one 
sprout to a stem ; and in this case, the taking off the 
surplus suckers should not be delayed beyond the 
first week in July. If, on the other hand, you dis- 
regard the size of the fruit, you may leave the plant 
to regulate its own products as to number. The 
maturity of the fruit is indicated by the opening of 
the scales, and we must be careful to take it before 
the flower begins to show itself; and in doing this, 
to cut it close to the ground, leaving no stump to 
impoverish the root. It is a practice not uncom- 
mon to dig and loosen the earth around the roots 
in the fall of the year, and in dry and warm winter 
cHmates the practice is not a bad one ; but in ours, 
where frosts are severe and snows frequent, it would 
be highly injudicious, as earth recently dug absorbs 
and retains moisture more, and, consequently, freezes 
sooner and deeper, than that which has not been 
worked for some months preceding ; a remark 
which, by-the-way, calls us to the consideration of 
the best means of preserving the outstanding plants 
during the winter. 

Various means have been employed for this pur- 
pose. That which is most commonly used is, after 
stripping off the dead or decaying leaves, and trim- 
ming down the soun l ones to three or four inches 



156 GARDENING. 

to open trenches around the plant, and to draw up 
about it the earth furnished by these. This is again 
covered with long dung or stable litter, so as entire-, 
ly to exclude rain, and snow, and frost. But, in ma- 
King these provisions against cold and wet weather, 
we must not forget that it is possible to be careful 
over-much; for if the mounds of earth and litter be 
large and close, we expose our plants to suffocation 
from want of air ; to exhaustion from a continued 
vegetation, and to scorching from the fermentation 
of the covering matter, which, if the weather be wet 
and but occasionally warm, seldom fails to occur. 

To obviate these difficulties, it has been proposed 
that the mounds be gradually formed ; that the first 
covering be merely a wrapping of long dung, and 
that the additions made to it be conformed to the 
weather, leaving openings in all cases on its south- 
ern side for the purposes of ventilation, and in no 
case permitting the covering to exceed two feet in 
thickness.* But even this mode of treatment is not 
free from objection ; for, first, the direct application 
of the dung to the plant will always alter its flavour, 
and very much degrade it ; and again, the capri- 
ciousness of the weather does not generally give 
either warning of its changes, or time to accommo- 
date ourselves to them : they often take place in 
the night, and often (whether in the night or in the 
day) under circumstances which prevent us from 
giving to the plant the additional covering it may 
require. Two other methods, therefore, not dis- 
similar in themselves, have been suggested; the 
one, to employ hollow cylinders of earthenware, 
covered with a tile or piece of slate, and of capa- 
city sufficient to embrace the plant; the other, to 
form caps of straw (such as are used for lodging 
bees), and having a moveable top of the same ma- 

* This suggestion is M. Thoum's ; the writer of the excel- 
lent article on the artichoke, to be found in the Encyclopedie 
Methodique. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 157 

terial.* To the last method we see no room for ob- 
jection: in application it is easy, requiring no skill 
and little labour, while the material and workman- 
ship are both cheap and durable, and their property 
of excluding rain, snow, and frost, not to be doubted. 
Every gardener who understands his trade will 
take care to set apart a few of the finest heads of 
his own crop for seed ; but as the stock is upright, 
and the head so formed as to receive and hold wa- 
ter, it often happens that the seeds rot. To prevent 
this, the stems of the plants so set apart should be 
tied to stakes driven into the ground near them, and 
gradually bent, so as to give to the heads that de- 
gree of declination that will be sufficient to carry 
off the water that may fall upon them. 

When well managed, the artichoke will give fruit 
four or five years in succession ; but, to avoid acci- 
dents, new plantations should be made every year. 
In some parts of Europe, as in France and Italy, 
the taste for this vegetable is excessive, and much 
beyond what it merits on the score either of nutri- 
tiousness or flavour. Of this partiality the garden- 
ers avail themselves, and by employing the varie- 
ties which ripen soonest and latest, contrive to keep 
the plant in the market (in its natural state) seven 
or eight months of the twelve ; and means are then 
employed to prolong its use, by converting it into a 
comfit. In this country the taste for it is neither 
common nor great ; and as the culture is expensive 
and'not always successful, we have doubts whether, 
to gardeners who cultivate for the market, it is de- 
serving of much attention. 

Asparagus {Maratimus Officinalis). Of this plant 
there are ten species, one of which only is an ob- 
ject of garden culture, and to this botanists have 
given the name prefixed to this article. 

* The earthen cylinders have been proposed by M. Bosc, of 
the French Institute, and the straw caps by M. Feburier, of 
Rennes. 



158 GARDENING. 

Vegetables which have been long cultivated have 
in general many varieties; but to this law the as 
paragus appears to be an exception, having, as we 
believe, but two^ and these differing from each other 
only in volume. They are found growing sponta- 
neously in high northern latitudes, near the mouths 
of great rivers, where the soil is annually covered 
with a new coat of alluvial matter. The natural 
life of an individual plant does not exceed five years ; 
but, left undisturbed in its native bed, ii rises in the 
spring, ripens its seeds in the summer, and in au- 
tumn sheds them on the soft and rich surface which 
the spring floods have prepared for them : and in 
this way continues to propagate the race from one 
century to another. 

These facts could not have been either long ob- 
served or much considered, without suggesting the 
kind of treatment which would be most proper for 
the plant when transferred to an artificial bed ; yet 
the modes indicated for this purpose have been very 
different, and, like other things of even less conse- 
quence, have given rise to much and warm discus- 
sion. Of these disputed points the principal are, 
whether sowing or planting gives the most profit; 
whether plants of one, of two, or of three years 
are to be preferred ; whether the seedbed should 
be as rich, or less so than the plantation ; and, last- 
ly, whether this (the plantation) should be formed 
on the surface of the earth in its natural state, or 
on an excavation filled up with new and better ma- 
terials. 

The first of these questions appears to us to turn 
principally on convenience. If we can postpone the 
use of the plant for a year or two, sowing is to be 
preferred; because the crop it gives (other things 
being equal), though later in coming, is more abun- 
dant, of better quality, and of longer duration ; but 
if our supply must be prompt, planting is best, for 
by this mode we no doubt soonest obtain the fruit 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 159: 

The same or similar considerations influence the 
second question ; but there are others which affect, 
and which may be thought sufficient to decide it. 
Roots of three years will not only give fruit sooner 
than those of one or of two years, but their fibres 
being harder and roots more numerous, are better 
able to sustain the violence inseparable from trans- 
plantation, and the other accidents (such as heating 
and chafing) which often accompany it, particularly 
if the roots be brought from a distance. 

With regard to the third question we would only 
remark, that the translation of seedlings from the 
nursery to the plantation always forms a crisis in 
their health and character, during which they are 
best supported by giving to them an increased stimu- 
lus or nutrition. But if the seedbed be as rich as 
that of the plantation, the transferred plant has no 
support of this kind ; and hence it is that, though it 
may not perish, it will not thrive. 

The last question may be considered as one alto- 
gether of means or abihty in the cultivator ; and as 
among our readers there may be both poor and 
rich, we will give a sketch of both methods, the 
saving plan, and that which, though more expensive, 
is decidedly better. 

First Method. — Manure the square (allotted for 
asparagus) largely, in the fall of the year, with well- 
rotted dung. Trench it to the depth of twenty or 
thirty inches, and leave it in a rough state during 
the winter. As early as possible in the spring, cov- 
er it with two or three inches of manure, and dig it 
to the depth of ten or twelve inches, taking care 
to mix the earth and the dung intimately together. 
The square being now dug and manured, level and 
smooth its surface, divide it into beds of four feet, 
drill these lengthwise with the spade or the hoe, 
and in the drills (which may be a foot apart) sow 
your seeds sparsely, or plant your roots, as the case 
may be, at the distance from each other (in the 



160 GARDENING. 

rows) of fourteen inches. If you sow, cover the 
seed with an inch of good soil ; and if you plant, 
cover the roots to the depth of three inches with a 
similar soil. No other crop should be sown in these 
beds, and weeds should be carefully taken out by 
the hand from time to time. On the approach of 
winter, mow off the young asparagus, and cover the 
bed with stable htter. In the spring, rake off this 
covering, and keep the beds clean and loose during 
the summer. Continue the same process till the 
third year, when you may begin (but sparingly) to 
cut the plants for table use. Formed and managed 
in this way, and manured every third year after- 
ward, an asparagus-bed will last ten or twelve 
years.* 

Second Method. — In the summer or autumn pre- 
ceding your sowing or planting, divide the square 
intended for asparagus into four feet beds, marking 
the angles by stakes, and leaving alleys between 
the beds of 1 1-2 or 2 feet. Excavate the beds to 
the depth of twenty-six inches, and if you find the 
bottom cold, and clayey, and retentive of moisture, 
sink it half a foot deeper. Lay on this six inches 
of coarse gravel, or stones, or both, and on these 
place a layer of equal depth of tanner's bark or 
chips, brushwood, weeds, horns, hoofs, or any other 
slowly-decomposing matter, vegetable or animal. 
Over this spread another layer, composed of cow 
and horse dung mixed, to the depth of twelve inch- 
es, and on the top of all replace the surface soil you 
have thrown out, adding to it as much well-rotted 
dung as will entirely fill up the excavation. In this 
way you proceed to form the remaining beds ; and, 
when all are finished, level and rake them, and re- 
move the poor soil thrown out in trenching. As 
early in the spring as the temperature of the weather 
and the state of the ground will permit, dig the beds 

* American Gardener. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 161 

ten or twelve inch'.^^ deep, and work into them as 
much well-rotted dung as will bring them to the 
level of the alleys (for they will have sunk consid- 
erably) ; after which, rake and smooth them, and 
trace out with the spade or the hoe four small 
trenches on each, not more than one inch deep ; 
and in these sow fresh, and large, and well-ripened 
seed, and so sparsely, that, when the plants rise, 
they will not be found nearer together (in the rows) 
than fourteen inches. Draw an inch of mould over 
the seeds, and then ro'l or tread the rows, so as 
to press the seed and the earth everywhere into 
contact. 

If, on the other hand, you prefer planting, select 
roots of one, of two, or of three years, remember- 
ing that " the white are only to be employed, and 
that those of a violet or livid colour are always 
hollow and unproductive."* In putting these down, 
your trenches must be deep enough to receive the 
roots and a covering of three inches. The crowns 
of these roots must be placed upright, and the pattes 
[or fingers], as they are sometimes called, spread 
and directed downward ; for on their taking this 
direction (to the food provided for them) the pros- 
perity of the plantation will principally depend. It 
now only remains to cover them, and that should 
be done with three inches of good fresh mould. In 
winter the plants may be left to themselves, as 
many experiments show that, in beds constructed 
in the way and of the materials we have described, 
they are never injured by frost ; and farther, that, if 
the surfaces of such beds be entirely exposed to its 

* Duchesne, Prof. Nat. History, Versailles. Another remark 
of this author is, that the male plants are much more profitable 
than the female, and that, therefore, whether we sow or plant, 
the number of seeds in the one case, and of roots in the other, 
should be double the number usually employed ; and that, at the 
time of flowering, when the sexes can be readily discriminattd, 
the females should be destroyed. 



162 GARDENING. 

action, the crop will be less liable to the attacks of 
insects the ensuing spring. 

In the month of March or April (during the whole 
existence of the plant) the beds must be carefully- 
forked and dressed, and kept clear of weeds.* Oc- 
casional waterings are necessary till the third or 
fourth year, when the plants will be sufficiently es- 
tabhshed to do without them ; but it is at this epoch, 
and in some degree as a substitute for watering, that 
you must cover your beds with three inches of ad- 
ditional earth. 

With regard to the cutting of asparagus, it may 
not be unnecessary to remark, that this should not 
be done till the third year, and then but sparingly 
and late in the season ; and that it should be discon- 
tinued the moment you find the buds dwindling in 
size and diminishing in number. 

It will be readil}'" perceived, that the modes of 
cultivation we have indicated are those only which 
furnish the article in its natural season ; but as win- 
ter asparagus, like winter roses, takes an increased 
value from its rarity, it remains to say something of 
the method technically called/orcm^. The first step 
in this process is to procure a supply of three-year 
old plants (for none else are fit for the purpose), 
and the next to have a hotbed of proper tempera- 
ture ready to receive them. You now trench its 
surface lengthwise, and by drawing the earth to the 
side of each trench, you form ridges, against which 
you set the roots, at the distance of two inches apart, 
the buds upright, and the fingers spread as directed 
in method second. They are then to be covered 

* It has been lately asserted, and with sufficient confidence, 
that a pickle of salt and water, of the ordinary strength for pre- 
serving meat, may be very usefully applied to asparagus beds in 
the spring. The effects ascribed to it ar-e its stimulating power 
upon the crop, and its tendency to destroy the seeds of weeds 
and of insects lying near the surface. Experiments on this 
subject should be raultip-ied, and with pickles differing in strength 
9nd onantity. 



KITCHEN GARUfJN 163 

with mould, and the glasses to be replaced on the 
frames, and, when the buds begin to show them- 
selves, they must have a second and similar cover- 
ing. 

The ventilation iirst of the bed, and subsequently 
of the plants, ha.i distinct rules, requiring the strict- 
est observance. With regard to the former, the gen- 
eral direction is, to give to the bed as much air as 
possible, without permitting the earth to be cither 
frozen or chilled ; with regard to the latter, so soon 
as the buds show themselves through the second 
covering of mould, ventilate every day, and through- 
out the day if the weather be good; but during the 
night, whatever may be the state of the weather, 
keep your glasses down, and constantly covered 
with straw matting. 

Though we have thus far taken for granted that 
the temperature of the hotbed is a proper one, still, as 
accidents sometimes occur in that respect, and of a 
character and with effects directly opposite to each 
other, it may not be amiss to remark that, for ten 
days after the roots are put down, the degree of 
beat in the bed must be carefully watched, lest it 
be too great ; and, if found to be so, holes must be 
^mediately bored, with a stake of two or three 
inches diameter, into the fermenting mass from 
without, and other similar holes into the earth di- 
rectly below the roots; and when, by these means, 
the heat is sufficiently moderated, the holes are to 
be carefully stopped. On the other hand, should 
the heat be found insufficient or to decline too rap- 
idly,«a moment must not be lost in giving a new 
lining of fresh and hot dung to the sides of the bed. 
The common method of ascertaining the degree of 
heat in these cases, is to run down a sharp-pointed 
stick between the roots, and, if it become suddenly 
and greatly heated, or heated in a small degree, or 
not at ail, the conclusion is drawn accordingly. Foi 
ourselves, we have found the finger a very safe ther 
13 



164 GARDENING. 

mometer, and having this advantage over any other, 
that it is sure to be always at hand. 

In four weeks the plants will be fit for use, and, 
if well managed, will give buds for three weeks to 
come. But it may be useful to notice, that the 
mode of taking these differs from that used for 
plants raised in the natural way. If you employ a 
knife, you cannot fail to destroy many young plants 
(on account of the closeness with which they stand 
to each other) ; but the mode by which you do least 
mischief is to thrust your finger down along side 
of the bud, and break it off at the root. 

We shall close this article with the description 
of a method practised in France, which will prob- 
ably be new to most of our readers, and which, we 
think, may be usefully employed as part of the hot- 
bed method just described. We quote from the 
N. Cours d'Agriculiure, art. Asperge. " M. Sequen, 
of Baz-Sur-le-Seine, introduces the bud, the day it 
shows itself, into the neck of a broken or cracked 
bottle, through which it alternately mounts and de- 
scends until it completely fills the whole cavity. 
One of these plants is sufficient for a dish, weighs 
14 oz., and is as tender and well flavoured as the 
buds taken in the ordinary way. The neck of the 
inverted bottle is pressed into the earth as far as it 
will go, and other means employed to keep it up- 
right ; a condition necessary to the success of the 
experiment." 

The Bean {Faha), a genus of plants according to 
Tournefort and Jessieu, and a species [of Vicia] ac- 
cording to Linnaeus and other botanists. Olivier 
found it growing spontaneously in Persia, and con- 
siders it a native of that, or of some neighbouring 
part of Asia. 

The ancients had many ridiculous prejudices in 
relation to this vegetable. In Egypt, to look at 
it was an act of uncleanness. In Greece, Pythag 
eras forbade its use ; and at Rome, the Flamen Di • 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 165 

alls was not permitted to name it. This proscrip- 
tion is differently accounted for by different writers. 
Clemens Alexandrinus ascribes it to a supposed 
property in the bean to create banrenness in animals ; 
and Theophrastus superadds a similar properly in re- 
lation to vegetables ; while Cicero accounts for it by 
alleging that it " disturbed the mind, and obscured 
the faculty of divination by dreams." It has, how- 
ever, surmounted all these prejudices, and has long 
been in general use, either in a green or dry state, in 
every part of the world. 

Of the species we have mentioned, the horsebean 
is supposed to be the type, and has many varieties, 
known in different places by different names, as the 
Julian, the Mazagan, the Toker, the Sandwich, the 
Spanish, the green Genoa, and the Windsor. Of the 
Kidney bean (the Phaseolus Vulgaris), the varieties 
are still more multiplied, as they alter, when planted 
near each other, by reciprocal fecundation. La 
Buriays, in his La Quintanie, enumerates sixty, and 
M. Bosc says that, in the garden of M. Gavoty de 
Resthe, he had seen four hundred.* 

But, however multiplied the races, the character 
and habits of the plants continue to be nearly the 
same. They all affect a strong, substantial, moist 
soil, well dug and abundantly manured ; and the en- 
emies they most dread are late and frosty springs, 
and early and hot summers. These circumstances 
cannot fail to attract the attention of the cultivator, 
and the more so as they involve a practical contra- 
diction; for as the one invites to late planting, so 
the other would appear to forbid it. The only 
remedy, in this case, is to regulate our labours, not 
by the almanac, but by the temperature of the 
weather and the earth, which will never deceive us. 
When these begin to favour vegetation, and not be- 
fore, dig and manure your ground thoroughly, and 

* N. Cours d'Agriculture, art, Feve. 



166 GARDENING. 

(after smoothing the surface and forming the drills) 
begin by planting the Toker, broad Spanish, and 
Windsor, and subsequently the Mazagan, early Lis- 
bon, long pod, white blossom, and green Genoa, the 
former four inches apart in the rows, and the latter 
half that distance. The effect of this management 
will be to secure a succession of fruit, according to 
the different degrees of precocity in the plants ; and 
to make the varieties which bear cold the best the 
first, and those which are least injured by heat the 
last in the series. 

The kidney-bean, being more sensible of cold 
and wet weather than the preceding species, must 
be planted later. Its varieties are divided into two 
races ; the climbing and the dwarf (scandens et 
thumilis), the former requiring poles to support' 
them, the other requiring no support. Of the first 
of these races, the most approved are, the Prague, 
the Prudhome, the altogether-yellow, and the red ; 
and of the second, the Dutch, the Laon, the yellow, 
and the Swiss.* After the preparatory labour in- 
dicated above, the climbers should be planted in 
groups (four or five together), with a pole, well fixed 
in the earth, for them to mount upon; while the 
dwarfs should be placed in rows, at the distance of 
two or three inches from each other, and carefully 
covered. Squares of these (the dwarfs) may be 
planted from April till August, according to the 
taste and convenience of the cultivator. 

The last species we shall mention and the latest 
to be sown, is the Lima bean, which ought not to 
be hazarded before the frosts are completely over, 
and then committed only to a rich, warm, and well- 
laboured soil. It is usually and best cultivated 
(like all other climbers) in what gardeners call kills, 
composed of rich mould, and separated six feet from 

* A new variety of climbers, called the Horticaltural bean, 
has lately come into notice, much admired for its rich flavovif 
and prolific properties. — J. B. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 167 

each other. Four or five beans, and two or three 
stout poles nine or ten feet in length, are sufficient 
for each hill. When the beans begin to run they 
should be trained to mount the poles, for it is only 
by doing so that they will receive that degree of 
air and of sunshine which is necessary to the pro- 
duction of their fruit.* 

Our remarks thus far have been confined, or 
nearly so, to the sowing of the bean. Those which 
follow apply to its management after that work is 
over, and are common to the labours necessary or 
useful to the whole family. When the plant has 
attained the length of three or four inches, the earth 
about its roots should be loosened with the hoe, and 
a fresh portion of it drawn up to the stem. The 
rule for subsequent labours is to hoe again when 
the flowers begin to show themselves, and a third 
time about a month after the second hoeing ; but 
the better practice is to take as our guide, in this 
respect, not the condition of the plant, but that of 
the soil and of the weather ; and, whenever the latter 
is dry and hot, or the former hard, or baked, or in- 
fested with weeds, repeat the hoeing ; remember- 
ing' that it is not easy to commit any excess in this 
way; and, in general, that the oftener the work is 
repeated (unless the weather be wet), the finer and 
more abundant will be the crop. 

When the bean is sufficiently in blossom (which 
is taken for granted as soon as the lower or first 
formed pods begin to swell), it is a practice not un- 
common to pinch off" the tops of the vines ; the ob- 
ject of which is to prevent the plant from having 
more pods than it can bring to perfection, and to 
render better those which are left, by giving to them 
a nutriment which would have otherwise gone to 

* The Carolina bean is but a variety of the Lima, and is 
therefore to be managed in the same way, with the exception 
that, being less in volume, four feet t 'tween the hills give suf- 
ficient room for it. 



168 GARDENING. 

the support of a useless portion of stem. But of 
this practice, and of the theory on which it is found- 
ed, we may be permitted to doubt, because it does 
not appear to follow that, when the growth of a 
plant is checked or suspended in one direction, it 
will not exert itself in another as injuriously to the 
crop as any increased length of stem would have 
done. Every day's experience shows that, if we 
pollard an apple-tree, we indeed stop its growth up- 
ward, but that, instead of sending its surplus juices 
to the support and enlargement of the fruit (as this 
practice supposes), it hastens to throw out lateral 
stems or suckers, which give no fruit whatever. 
Our creed therefore is, that in the vegetable econ- 
omy, certain juices go to the production of stem, 
and certain others, more elaborated and of a differ- 
ent quality, to that of flowers and fruits ; and that, 
whether desirable or not, the art of giving to either 
a destination different from what nature intended, is 
yet to be discovered. 

The bean, of every species or variety, is exempt, 
as we believe, from the depredations of insects ; but, 
left for seed or winter use, it often suffers from 
very dry or very wet weather; the one diminishing 
the bulk, and hardening and shrivelling the skin ; the 
other rotting the bean, and, when it does least mis- 
chief, altering its flavour. For the former, frequent 
watering may be a cure, but for the latter there is 
perhaps no remedy. 

In the neighbourhood of cities, the dwarf varieties 
are often cultivated in hotbeds, but the product is 
always of a very inferior kind ; for, of the whole 
catalogue of table vegetables, none is more apt to 
take a disagreeable flavour from hot and fermented 
dung (which is the basis of these beds) than the 
bean. Of this process, therefore, we only say, that 
it differs in nothing from that already described for 
forcing asparagus.* 

* N. C. d'Agriculture, art. Feve. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 169 

The Beet {Beta) is of the family of the Cheno- 
podees, and contains five species, two of which, the 
Beta Cycla and Beta Hortensis, are objects of gar- 
den culture. The former is what tlie English call 
the Maraiime beet, and the French the Poiree. 
Some botanists have regarded this as the type of the 
genus, while others consider it a product of cultiva- 
tion. Its varieties are two, the tall and the Dutch 
which are used for the same purposes ; the leaves 
as salad, or as an ingredient in soups, either alone 
or mixed with sorrel ; and the roots as food for cat- 
tle, and particularly for hogs. 

Of the second species there are five varieties, 
which take their natnes from their colour or size ; 
the yellow, the white, the large red, the small 
red, and the white with red veins. It is to this 
last variety that M. Commeril has given the whim- 
sical name of Scarcity, though its products per 
acre is greater than that of any other garden vege- 
table.* 

Like all other garden plants, the beet is nutritive 
in proportion to the saccharine matter it contains. 
Of the varieties we have named, the yellow has the 
most, and the white veined with red the least of 
this matter. Yet the experiments of M. Deyeux 
prove that colour has less to do with this produc- 
tion than culture. " Two beds," says he, " of sim- 
ilar soil, and laboured alike, were sown with beet- 
seed of the same variety. One of these was high- 
ly manured with well-rotted dung, the other had no 
manure of any kind applied to it. The beets grown 
in the former were large, but, on analysis, yielded 
no saccharine matter, while those grown on the 
latter gave the ordinary quantity of sugar." 

Margraff t was the first to extract from the beet 

* See Arthur Young on the product of the beet, and a me- 
moir of M. d'Aughbigny, in the I6th volume of the Transac- 
tions of the Agricultural Society of the Seine. 

t About a century ago. 



170 GARDENING. 

a marketable sugar, or what is called the sugar ot 
commerce. Achard followed in the same track, 
and with a success that led him to believe that it 
might be afforded at the low price of five or six 
sous the pound ; but later experiments, more care- 
fully and scientifically made, under the direction of 
the French Institute, demonstrate that this product 
can never come into competition with sugar made 
from the cane.*f The saccharine mucus in which 
it abounds, and the disposition it has to vinous fer- 
mentation, has, however, long since suggested an- 
other employment of it, that of making brandy, 
and hence it is, that in countries in which the 
vine does not prosper (as in the north of Germa- 
ny), great quantities of it are distilled into an ardeni 
spirit. 

The cultivation of the beet, whatever be its spe- 
cies or variety, is the same. Having prepared (by 
a thorough digging) a square of loose, rich, and deep 
soilj (which has been well manured the preceding 
fall), divide it into beds of four feet width ; score 

* It may not be amiss to mention here the process for ma- 
king sugar from the beet, ascribed to Professor Gotthng, and 
detailed in the 1 6th volume of the Bibliotheque Brittanique. " To 
disengage the saccharine matter from the mucus, which pre- 
vents it from crystaUizing, cut the roots into long slices, and as 
thin as possible, and dry them on tiles in a stove. When thor- 
oughly dry, put them for some hours in a small quantity of cold 
water. The sugar will pass from the beet to the water before 
the slices are softened, and may be again separated from it (the 
water) by evaporation and crystallization. If we attempt to dry 
the' beet in the open air, many of them will rot; and if you put 
them in an oven, you run the risk of baking them. The residu- 
um which this process leaves is useful for cattle, poultry, &c.'' 

■}• This prediction has not been verified ; for in France beet 
sugar has come into serious competition with that made from 
cane, in consequence of the manufacturing process being greatly 
improved and simplified, and the whole of the saccharine mat 
ter being now extracted from the roots. — J. B. 

X Yet Mr. Cobbett recommends sowing beet- seed in the fall 
like parsnips, and says the frost cannot mjure them ! 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 171 

these lengthwise about an inch and a half deep, and 
one foot asunder ; drop the seeds* into these rows 
thinly, and draw over them a hght covering of the 
surface soil, trodden down with the foot. 

As the beet is easily affected by frost, the plant- 
ing of the main crop should be delayed till the mid- 
die of May. A month after, or so soon as the 
plants have put out three or four leaves, thin the 
rows so as to leave the young beets at the distance 
of twelve or fourteen inches apart ; and if there be 
chasms in the rows, as will sometimes happen from 
bad seed or unskilful sowing, fill these up with the 
surplus plants. The intervals between the rows 
should at the same time be thoroughly cleaned from 
weeds, and the oftener this operation is performed 
and the ground stirred during the whole course of 
vegetation in the plant, the larger will be the pro- 
duct and the better its quality. In dry weather, 
and during the infancy of the plant, watering is in- 
dispensable. 

Some writers have proposed raising the beet in- 
seedbeds and transplanting i^ ; but experience for- 
bids this practice, as the fact is well estabhshed 
that, other things being equal, the transplanted beet 
is never so fine as that which has been left undis- 
turbed ; a remark, by-the-way, which applies gen- 
erally, perhaps universally, to tap-rooted plants. 

As soon as vegetation is over, which always oc- 
curs after the first hard frost, take up the plants, 
expose them a day or two to the air to evaporate 

* The same author attributes the forking of beets, not to 
stones or clods, as is generally done, but to working and ma- 
nuring the ground around their roots, which, according to his 
theory, attracts one side of the root to the right and the other 
to the left, and never stops till it gives the plant two legs to stand 
upon instead of one. How happens it, then, that in deep, rich, 
.cose soils, whatever be the labour, there is no forking, and that 
in stony or cloddy ground, though little worked, there is so 
much of it '. This subject will be found fully discussed in the 
N. C. d'Agriculture, art. Beterave- 
14 



i72 GARDENING^ 

their surplus moisture, and then liouse them care- 
fully. This is best done by putting them in layers 
in a dry cellar, and interposing between them a 
slight covering of sand. 

A few of the largest and finest roots should be 
kept for seed. Twenty of them, set out in the 
spring and occasionally laboured, will give nearly 
a bushel of seed. 

The Cabbage {Brasica) is a genus of plants con- 
taining several species, of which the cabbage, prop^ 
erly so called, and two or three others, are objects 
of garden culture. It is only of the first (to which 
botanists have given the name of Brasica Oleracea) 
and its varieties that we mean to speak at present, 
and of these there are more than fifty ;* some of 
which differ so entirely from others as to have puz- 
zled the savans in finding for them any common 
character.! To extenuate, if not to extinguish, this 
reproach to science, M. Duchesne has ingeniously 
divided them into six races, distinguished by the 
parts which severally render them objects of culti- 
vation, viz. : ^ 

The Oleracea, cultivated for the seed, which gives 
an oil ; 

The Viridis, for its open and upright long and 
broad leaves ; 

The Capitata, for its leaves, in a round or flat and 
compact form, called a head; 

* When Brussonnet was at the head of the great national 
garden at Altfort, in France, he had collected more than fifty 
of these varieties. 

t " Le chou, dont les varietes sont si nombreuses (j'en ai vu 
cultiver simultanement plus de cinquante) et si differentes les 
unes des autres, qu'il est impossible de leur assigner un charac 
tere commun, est une plante annuelle originaire des bords de la 
mer."— Parmentier. 

The cabbage, of which the varieties are so numerous (I have 
fleen more than fifty different kinds cultivated together), and so 
unlike each other that it is impossible to ascribe to them a com 
mon character, is an annual plant, originally growing on the 
borders of the sea. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 173 

The Coliflora, for its branches, buds, and flowers 

The Rapa-Brasica, for its root ; and 

The Napus-Brasica, for its stem. 

With the first and last of these varieties we have 
nothing to do, as they belong exclusively to field 
culiure. We begin, therefore, with 

The Green, of which there are many sub-varieties, 
called by different names, as borecole, Jerusalem 
kale, Scotch kale, Brussels sprouts, Cavalier, &c., 
&c., some of which are red and others green, some 
curled and others smooth, but agreeing in two cir- 
cumstances : the open erect leaf, and a power of 
resisting frost much beyond that of any other vari- 
ety of the family. It is this last circumstance that 
particularly recommends it ; for a frost that would 
be destructive of head cabbage will make kale 
better. This fact determines its use in garden cul- 
ture, which is always for winter and spring greens. 

Head cabbage, like the preceding, is subdivided 
into races, distinguished from each other by the 
smoothness or curl of the leaf, and by the colour 
of the flower. Of the smooth-leafed and yellow- 
flowered race, the most approved varieties are the 
early dwarf, the early York, the early Bonneuil, 
the white Alsace, the red cabbage, and the Stras- 
burg or Quintal.* Of the curled sort, the early 
Milan, the Milan taper, the golden, and the green 
dwarf Savoy, are the best. 

The Cauliflower.— The organization of this race 
differs considerably from those we have mentioned. 
In them, the juices are principally determined to the 
leaves, whereas in this they are directed to the ped- 
uncles, producing a mass of branches and buds 
equally tender and delicate. Of this race there are 

* In the cultivation of the cabbage (and in this they appear 
to have been very successful), the Romans particularly aimed 
at giving to the plant great size. " Caule in tantum saginato, 
ut pauperie mensa non capiat," says Pliny. "The cabbage of 
such size that the dish would not hold it." 



174 GARDENING. 

two varieties : the cauliflower proper and the broc- 
coli, each of which has its sub-varieties. Those 
of the former are the hard (called also the English 
cauliflower) and the tender. The first, being occa- 
sionally very productive, would be exclusively cul- 
tivated, did it succeed equally well at all times and 
In all places ; but its capriciousness makes the cul- 
tivation of the second sort proper, because, though 
this may sometimes give little, it will always give 
something. The sub-varieties of the broccoli are 
two, the common and the Maltese* distinguishable 
only by the number, the bulk, and the colour of the 
flowers. f 

Turnip Cabhage. — Like the preceding, this has its 
peculiarities ; for, after attaining its ordinary height, 
the leaf falls, and the stem swells to a circumfer- 
ence of many inches, enclosing a succulent, nutri- 
tious, and agreeable matter, for the sake of which 
the plant is cultivated. | 

Races so diff"erent in appearance and in the laws 
which govern them, may be supposed to require 
different kinds and degrees of culture : but what of 
this is common to all forms not only the larger, but 
by much the most essential part of the treatment. 
We shall, therefore, speak first of this, and then of 
the less important particulars in which their man- 
agement may diff'er. 

Every variety of cabbage grows best in a strong, 
rich, substantial soil, inclining rather to clay than 
to sand ; but will grow in any soil if it be thoroughly 
worked and abundantly manured with well-rotted 
dung. As soon, therefore, as the ground designed 
for the crop has been thus prepared, and offers signs 
of spontaneous vegetation, the planting of early cab- 

* Now generally denominated " Kohl-rabbi," or " turnip-root- 
ed cabbage." — J. B 

t The common terms now given to the broccoli by gardeners 
are the White and Red Cape. — J. B. 

t Some of the bulbs get to be twenty-three inches in circumfer" 
ence, and weigh twelve pounds.'' — M'Mahon, page 317 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 175 

bages should begin. But without plants this cannot 
be done, and these are only to be had from a hotbed 
prepared in January or February (as for asparagus), 
and sown with the seeds of cauliflowers, of broc- 
coli, and of the early sorts of the head cabbage.* 
When the plants are two or three inches high, they 
should be removed to another hotbed of lower tem- 
perature and larger surface, where they should re- 
main until transferred to the open air, and to the 
bed where they are permanently to stand. The 
time for doing this (as already indicated) is when 
the earth, by its spontaneous productions, discovers 
the warmth necessary for vegetation. To do it ear- 
lier would be to risk your plants, and not to do it 
now would be to fail in your intention of having 
early cabbages. The time of this last transplant- 
ing is also that for forming seedbeds in the open 
air for your winter supply.f As in the former case, 
the plants, when two or three inches high, must be 
removed to beds prepared for them, and thence, be- 
tween the 1st and 20th of June, be transferred to 
their permanent beds. No vegetable bears trans- 
planting better than the cabbage. The advantages 
resulting from it are shorter and stouter stems and 
larger heads, which rarely burst or run to seed. J 

The act of planting should be performed care- 
fully. Holes of sufficient depth and width should 
be dibbled, for the smaller sorts of cabbages at the 
distance of two feet and a half, and for the larger 
sorts of three feet every way. In these the plants 
should be placed up to their lower leaves,^ and the 

* M'Mahon advises sowing the seeds of the early sorts in 
September, in the open air, transplanting them to hotbeds in 
November, and prickmg them out in the spring. 

t We have found that from the 25th to the 28th May is early 
enough to sow winter cabbages and broccoli. If sown earlier, 
they mature too early, and many of the heads of the cabbage 
break open before winter, and the broccoli runs to seed and 
waste unless there be a market at hand.— J. B. 

t See Millar, Beriays, M'Mahon, &c., &c. 

^ The turnip cabbage is an exception to this rule. The 
earth must only be brought to the bulb. 



176 GARDENING. 

earth brought closely about the roots, which is best 
done by pushing down the dibbler at a small angle 
with the plant, and then bringing it up to it with a 
'jerk. This leaves no chambering (as gardeners call 
it), no vacancy between the plant and the soil. 

The state of the weather when these operations 
are performed is not a matter of indifference, and 
has been a subject of controversy ; some recom- 
mending dry weather, others wet. As in many 
other disputed cases, the truth lies between them ; 
that is, moist weather, w^hich is neither dry nor 
wet, and is precisely that which is best for putting 
out cabbages, or any other vegetable. We ought 
not, however, to wait long for even this most fa- 
vourable state of the atmosphere, since, with a little 
labour, M'e have the means of making up for its 
absence. If the weather be dry, water green and 
head cabbage plants once a day ; and cauliflower, 
broccoli, and turnip cabbage plants iivice a day, 
till they have taken root. Without a good deal of 
water, the last is apt to become stringy and even 
ligneous ; and in Spain and Italy, where cauliflow- 
ers and broccoli are finest, they are generally plant- 
ed in trenches, on the very margin of little rivulets, 
natural or artificial. 

The three last-tnentioned varieties require more 
of manure and labour, as well as of water, than the 
others ; and in this circumstance consists the prin- 
cipal difference of treatment in the cultivation of 
them. The most successful method with the cau- 
liflower race is to place them in trenches two feet 
and a half from each other, and on layers of equal 
parts of earth and cow-dung thoroughly mixed to- 
gether. Whenever weeds encroach upon these, let 
them be well hoed ; and, whenever hoed, let fresh 
earth be brought up to the plants. For head cab- 
bage, hoeing and earthing once a month is the ordi- 
nary rule.* 

* Once or twice a week is preferable. — J. B. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 177 

The modes of preserving these varieties through 
the winter are also somewhat different. The open- 
leaved sorts may be left where they have grown,* 
and used as wanted. Head cabbage may be set in 
cellars, or buried in holes or trenches in the gar- 
den, and covered with straw and earth; cauliflow- 
ers must be housed in cellars or barns, and hung up 
by their roots ; and broccoli, which does not bear 
this treatment, maybe left in the garden,! andiman- 
aged in the v/ay last suggested for head cabbage. 
The stalks of the more common species are worth 
preserving ; and, when set out in the spring, give 
sprouts,! which furnish an excellent and well-timed 
article for the table. 

A few of the best plants of each variety should 
be kept for seed ; and, in setting them out, care 
must be taken to keep them as far apart as possible. 

The Carrot (Daucus). — This genus comprehends 
several species, the principal of which is the Dau- 
cus Carota. Of this there are three varieties, the 
white, the orange or yellow, and the red : having 
perhaps different qualities in different soils and cli- 
mates, as we find the white preferred in Italy, the 
yellow in France, and the red in England. Abbe 
Rozier says of the white variety, that " it is less 
injured by humidity than the others;" which, as is 
justly remarked by the compilers of the Cours d' Ag- 
riculture, would be a good reason why it should be 
preferred in England, or in some of the northern or 
western provinces of France, but a very bad one 

* Even the open-leaved sorts are better to be buried in trench- 
es. A hard winter will utterly destroy them in the open ground. 
—J. B. 

t In France, the winter management of the broccoli is ex- 
actly that of the artichoke. See Parmentier and the Phytolo- 
gie Uriiverselle of Jolyclerc. 

X It has been suggested that cabbage sprouts, taken off lite 
suckers from artichokes, and planted, will give good heads, and 
sooner than they can otherwise be obtained ; but of this we 
have ourselves no experience. 



178 GARDENING. 

why a preference should be given to it in Italy, 
where the climate is remarkably dry. Many wri- 
ters speak of a fourth variety, the round or turnip- 
rooted carrot of Holland ; but M. Thouin considers 
this form of root as a 4iiere imperfection in the 
plant, arising from a stiff subsoil, which prevents 
its penetrating into the earth. 

The carrot, like the beet, contains much saccha- 
rine matter, but of a quality less valuable, as it can- 
not be made to crystallize. An extract may, how- 
ever, be taken from it, which forms no bad substi- 
tute for honey. 

The culture of the carrot does not differ at all 
from that of the beet. The seeds (from their long 
and hairy covering) are apt to catch and hold fast to 
each other ; and should therefore be well rubbed 
with sand, and separated before they are sown. If 
the plants come up too closely, thin them, leaving 
twelve or fourteen inches between them. They 
will be the finer, not only from the increased space 
to grow in, but from the greater room which such 
space affords for the hoe or the hook.* They are 
taken up at the same period as beets, and, like them, 
are preserved through the winter in cellars or root- 
houses made for tHe purpose. 

A few of the roots put out in the spring, when 
the frosts are over, will give abundance of seed- 

Celery {Apium Graveolens). — Of this there are two 
species, the branching and the turnip-rooted. Some 
botanists have conjectured that the latter (which is 
sometimes called Celeriac) was only a variety of 
the former; but Millar points out distinct character- 
istics, and asserts that, in the course of many years 

* M.Trolli advises, for the last weeding, the employment of a 
hook of two teeth, 1 5 or 1 G inches long. He says that, weeded by 
this instrument, the carrots are remarkably improved. As soon 
as the tops are fully out, no farther weeding is necessary, as 
these will suffocate everything growing under them, and pre- 
serve by their shade the necessary humidity in the soil. 



KITCHEJf GARDEN. 179 

cultivation, these have never disappeared. The 
roots o( the one are short and thick, and, in the 
process of vegetation, throw up tall and erect 
branches ; while those of the other have the shape, 
and, in favourable situations, the size of a turnip. 
The leaves of this last species are shorter than those 
of the other, and its top, instead of rising upright, 
spreads horizontally. The essential property, which 
renders the plant an object of cultivation, is its fla- 
vour, which is alike in both species, and existing in 
all their parts, roots, branches, leaves, and seeds. 
Of each species there are several varieties, taking 
their names from colour and organization ; as the 
red, the solid, the hollow, &c.j modifications, as we 
believe, entirely of culture. 

Celery is said to be a native of the marshes of 
Italy ; a fact which sufficiently indicates the warmth 
and moisture necessary for its proper treatment 
here. Sown in the spring and in the open air, the 
seeds, like those of all the other parsleys, will be 
slow in germinating ; whence it follows that, to have 
early plants, we must resort to the aid of artificial 
heat. A hotbed, such as that mentioned under the 
head of asparagus, will supply a whole neighbour- 
hood ; but one of cheaper form may be found in 
a couple of flower-pots of the larger size, filled with 
good soil, and kept in a room moderately warmed 
during cold weather. If the apartment has a win- 
dow of southern or eastern aspect, the pots should 
be placed before it, so as to give them light and air 
as well as heat. With the aid of water a little 
warmed, the seeds sown in the pots will show them- 
selves in a fortnight ; and in four weeks more will 
be fit to set out in the garden. The success of the 
experiment thus far will, however, greatly depend 
on the sowing ; for, if this has been done with a 
heavy hand, your plants will come up tall, and feeble, 
and diseased; whereas, if spursel}- sown, they will 
rise strong, healthy, and verdant, and will bear the 



180 GARDENING. 

subsequent transplanting with little, if any, injury. 
As soon as the frosts are over, this last operation 
begins ; and to meet it, a trench or trenches, accord- 
ing to the quantity of the article required, must bo 
cut from east to west, remembering to throw the 
displaced earth on your right hand, and in such way 
as to form an additional protection against the north 
wind. On the bottom of the trench must be placed 
a layer of well-rotted dung, wood ashes, and garden- 
mould, thoroughly incorporated, and on the surface 
of this set your plants (trimmed down to about six 
inches in length), at the distance of six or eight 
inches from each other. Care must be taken to fix 
the roots, and to keep the young branches closely 
together, the better to prevent any portions of earth 
from lodging between them ; after which, they roust 
be watered frequently and abundantly.* The next 
business is to earth them. Some of the French 
horticulturists direct this to be done at a single op- 
eration, and not till after the plant has acquired its 
full size ; but the more approved method is to do it 
gradually and at different times. The objects to be 
obtained by this operation are two : 1st, to alter the 
colour of the plant from green to white ; and, 2d, to 
render it more tender, sweet, and succulent, by 
shutting out light and heat, and preventing dryness, 
which give it an acrid taste, and render its fibres 
tough and hard, and even woody. 

♦ In planting out celery, as well as cabbages and other plants, 
we have successfully adopted Cobbett's plan of transplanting in 
fair warm days, and, if the ground be dry, it is not the worse. 
The plants are carefully taken up, well grouted, that is, their 
roots dipped in mud of the consistence of porridge, planted in 
the after part of the day, and watered at evening. By the grout 
they become saturated with moisture, and, placed in a. warm 
soil, they in a few hours send forth their radicles, revive and 
grow. By transplanting in this manner we have seldom found 
it necessary to water a second time ; and the plants rarely fail 
to obtain an early and good growth, without ever being covered 
to protect them from the sun. We prefer transplanting this wav 
in a clear hot day, to doing it in a wet and cool one. — J. B. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 181 

The Abbe Rozier has suggested that the whole 
labour, delay, and risk which unavoidably attend 
transplanting, might be saved by preparing trenches 
as above described, and sowing the seeds in them 
directly ; but though obviously the best method in 
climates of the south, which admit sowing in Feb- 
ruary, it is by no means clear that it would be 
equally fitted for ours, where culture in the open 
air does not begin till April. Coming, however, 
from so high an authority, the plan may be worthy 
of an experiment; and, if even successful in giving a 
crop for winter use, it would no doubt tend to sim- 
plify and abridge our labours. 

We need scarcely remark, that it is of the culture 
of the branching or upright celery that we have been 
thus far speaking, as the turnip-rooted sort requires 
neither trenching nor earthing. Both species are 
preserved through the winter in the same way, 
either by covering the plants where they grow with 
boards and stable litter, or by setting the roots in 
sand, in the corner of a dark and moderately warm 
roothouse or cellar. Plants which have been 
kept in the former way are the fittest for giving 
seed, and should be preferred for that purpose. 
When this (the seed) is ripe, it separates easily 
from the chaflf, and should then be rubbed out by 
the hand, put in paper bags, and hung up in a dry 
and ventilated room for future use. 

Succory (Cichorium). — But two species of this 
plant are cultivated in gardens, the Intybus and the 
Endivia; the one for medicinal purposes, and the 
other for the uses of the kitchen. Of the last, which 
alone falls within the scope of our work, there are 
several varieties, the best of which are the endive, 
properly so called, the Celestine, and the always- 
white. The first of these is the most prolific, and 
the second the most tender and fittest for salads. 

In stiiF clays and poor sands succory is a feeble 
plant ; in dry soils it becomes tough and disagreea- 



182 GARDENING 

bly bitter; and in ground manured with fermenting 
dung, or too abundantly, its flavour is both altered 
and degraded. The soil mOst favourable to it is a 
light, and fresh, and moist loam, thoroughly dug, 
moderately manured, and copiously watered. This 
last circumstance is not only essential to its germi- 
nation and development, but is the best remedy 
against the disposition, always shown by the plant 
in hot weather, to run into seed. An auxiliary 
means to secure this end is to tie up the heads so as 
to give them the form of a cone, which, by-the- 
way, is the method also employed for bleaching the 
plant. This is done by two tyings (one near the 
roots of the leaves, the other near the tops or 
points), and which should be made in succession, 
and at the distance of a iew days from each other. 

The seeds of this plant are generally and best 
sown in small beds. When the plants attain the 
height of three inches, transfer them to the place 
where they are to stand, and set them in rows at 
the distance of ten or twelve inches apart. Keep 
them free from weeds, water them frequently, and, 
when full grown, tie up the heads, or cover them 
with earthen pots reversed. The first and the last 
crops (those of spring and autumn) are best, but, 
with proper care, good ones may be had at midsum- 
mer ; in this case, however, your plantation must 
have a northern exposition. After tying, keep the 
heads erect, for such as lean are apt to burst, 

The green curled endive is the best for fall plant- 
ing, being the hardiest of all the different races. 
The winter management of this plant does not dif- 
fer from that of celery. 

Corn {Zed). — This is a native of America, was 
cultivated from time immemorial by the aborigines, 
and was introduced into Europe about three centu- 
ries ago. After a cultivation so long continued and 
so general, the- great number of varieties it now pre- 
sents cannot be thought extraordinary. These are 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 183 

distinguished from each other by the colour or the 
size of the grain, the number of rows on the cob, 
the length of time they respectively take in ripen- 
ing, and the degree of hardness acquired by them. 
Some are white and others black, some yellow and 
others brown, red, or violet, &c. Some have cobs 
twelve inches long, stud(]r(l with twelve rows of 
large grains, while others iiave only six rows on a 
cob three inches long, and covered with grains 
even smaller than peppercorns. Some are five 
months in ripening, while others ripen in forty 
days; and, again, some are hard and even flinty, 
while others are soft and succulent, and cannot be 
long preserved but by means of artificial heat. It 
so happens that, of this great variety, the sorts least 
valuable in commerce are those most sought after 
in garden culture, viz., the small, from its ripening 
soon, and the soft, from its greater tenderness and 
sweetness. It is, therefore, of these last varieties 
only that we shall speak. 

Observation has shown that, in raising Indian 
corn, something is gained, 1st, by taking your seed 
from plants which have each ripened two or more 
ears ; 2d, by rejecting the grains growing on either 
extremity of the ears, and employing only the cen- 
tral grains ; and, 3d, by steeping these in a solution 
oftiitre for twenty-four hours before sowing. With 
regard to this operation (sowing), one of two modes 
may be adopted ; either score your ground (which 
we take for granted has been well dug and manu- 
red) at the distance of three feet and a half both 
ways, and plant at the points of intersection (three 
grains at each), or score only one way (east and 
west), at the distance of four feet, and plant in the 
rows single grains eight or ten inches from each 
other. Hoe every ten days after the corn shows 
itself till it begins to set, and at each hoeing draw 
up a little earth round the roots of the plants; this 
is what is called hilling, and is a necessary part 



184 GARDENING. # 

of the treatment. Pulverized gypsum, applied in 
small quantities to the hills at tlie iirst and second 
hoeings, is found to be ii.^cful. The same remark 
may be made of wood allies, used in the same way, 
but in larger quantity. To supply seeds for the 
next year, cut off the tops of a few of the best 
plants the moment the ears fill.* The effect of 
this is to let in the air and sun on the ears, and, at 
the same time, to concentrate in these the remaining 
juices of the plant. 

The Water Cress. — There are two plants of this 
name, belonging to different genera ; the Cardamine, 
of the Cruciform, and the Hortensis, of the Passerage 
genus ; the first includes two useful species : the 
water cress, and the cress of the meadows ; the 
other has several varieties, as the golden, the cress 
of Brazil, that of India, that of Mexico, that of Para, 
all better than the parent plant, and between which 
there appears to be but little choice. The qualities 
and uses of both kinds are the same ; their taste is 
hot and piquant, and they are principally employed 
in the composition of salads. Lasteyrie tells us 
that in Germany great pains are taken to propagate 
the water cress, and gives the following account of 
their mode of doing it : *' The water (says he) most 
favourable for its production is that in which it gro^s 
naturally, and which in winter preserves heat enough 
to prevent it from freezing. The situation on which 
to form a cress plantation ought to have a little slope 
or inclination ; because water, in a state of repose, 
alters the flavour of the plant. Having chosen the 
place, it is formed into heights and hollows alter- 
nately ; the latter are destined for the cresses, and 
the former for the culture of other plants. The 
size of the hollows is made to depend on the quan- 
tity of water you can bring into them, and the de- 

* Decidedly a bad practice. Cut up the whole stock, or 
leave the whole to mature the seed. Either mode is better than 
topping. — J. B. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 185 

mand for the article to be raised. If the soil of the 
hollows is not sufficiently rich, better earth must be 
brought to amend it ; and, if the bottom be marshy, 
you throw over it some inches of sand. Your next 
step is to cover it with water for some hours, after 
which you drain and sow, or plant. At the end of 
a few days you let in the water and drain as before, 
and continue these processes until the cresses ap- 
pear, if sown, or until they have taken root, if plant- 
ed. The quantity of water let in is always to be 
regulated by the growth of the plant ; for, though it 
cannot live but in water, it will not bear to be long 
covered with it. Planting is always surer than sow- 
ing, and is therefore preferred. The time for this is 
either March or August. The distance between the 
plants should not be less than ten or fifteen inches. 
Moving the earth about their roots with the hoe, 
from time to time, is useful ; but for the rest (hav- 
ing once taken root), no farther care is necessary. 
A cress plantation is in full bearing the second year, 
and lasts a long time. When it begins to fail, it 
may be renewed by taking off a foot of the surface 
soil of the old beds, and replacing it with good and 
fresh earth. In winter the beds are covered more 
deeply with water, which protects the plant against 
the frost." 

The same writer informs us how they manage 
their cress plantations near Paris. " Having there 
(he says) no running water, they cultivate it in the 
neighbourhood of wells, and water it every day. 
The cress vegetates promptly, but becomes acrid in 
its taste. They accordingly prefer sowing to plant- 
ing, because, if cut when only six inches high, and 
treated in all respects as an annual, it has least of 
this pungency." 

The Garden Cress requires a moist and well-la- 
boured soil, and, if possible, a cool and shady situa- 
tion. The north side of a wall or fence is its true 
place in a garden, and, if frequently and abundantly 



186 GARDENING. 

watered, it will there arrive at all the perfection of 
which it is susceptible. 

Cucumber {Cucumis). — This genus of plants in- 
cludes many species, varying in foliage, and in the 
size and shape of their fruit. The more common 
and useful of these are the bouquet, or cluster cu- 
cumber, and the white, which are best fitted for 
frames ; the yellow and the parrot, which are most 
robust, productive, and best flavoured, and the green^ 
which, being nearest the wild state, is the fittest for 
pickling. In our climate, this plant is raised in every 
description of soil, and with a small degree of labour. 
The ground being dug and smoothed, line it into 
squares of six feet. In the centre of each dig a 
hole about fourteen inches deep; fill this with well- 
rotted dung, and sow on it five or six cucumber 
seeds ;* cover these with mould, and, when they are 
grown to have a rough leaf, select two for each hill, 
and draw out the remainder. You have now to 
choose between three methods of treating the plant, 
each of which has many and warm advocates. 1st. 
Permitting it to regulate itself with regard to the 
production and the length of the stem; 2d. The 
pinching system, which, by shortening the stem, 
compels it to push lateral branches; and, 3d. The 
plan of Rozier, which, by burying the runner at 
short distances, avoids the hazard of pinching or 
cutting, and, at the same time, obtains new roots 
from the buried joints. Of the three methods, the 
last has, in our opinion, the preference ; but, as 
others may come to a different conclusion, we will 
point out the time, the mode, and the effect of short- 
ening the stem. Soon after the plant acquires a sec- 
ond rough leaf, you will discover about the foot of 
it a bud which, if left to itself, would become a run- 
ner. This must be pinched off", taking care, howev- 



* Twenty is a better number. Plants can be more readily 
diminished than increased, and seeds cost little or nothing. — J. B. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 187 

er, not to wound the joint from which it proceeds. 
The effect of this pinching will be the production of 
side shoots, which in their turn must also be pinched 
off, leaving only two eyes on each, destined to be- 
come future runners, and so to be conducted that 
they will not shade or crowd each other. 

The sowing, of which we have here spoken, can- 
not be safely made in our climate till the 10th of 
May. For the fall and pickling crops, you must 
sow the first or second week of July. The treat- 
ment of these is in all respects like that prescribed 
for the first crop in the open air, excepting that the 
pinching part of it is altogether omitted, as at this 
season, the vigorous vegetation (which this opera- 
tion is intended to correct) is much diminished. 

It now remains to say a few words with regard to 
early cucumbers. To obtain these we must have 
recourse to artificial heat ; and with the less reluc- 
tance, as, of all plants, the cucumber is that with 
which it best agrees. To this end, therefore, scoop 
out as many large turnips as you propose to have 
hills ; fill these with good garden mould ; sow in each 
three or four seeds, and plunge them into a hotbed 
(as described in the article Asparagus). When the 
runners show themselves, spare them, or pinch 
them, or bury them, as you may think best, and on 
the 10th of May transfer them to the beds where 
they are to stand. The advantage of the scooped 
turnip as a seedbed over pots or vases, will now 
appear, for, instead of the ordinary difficulty of sep- 
arating the mass of earth and the plant from the pot 
which contained them, and without injury to either, 
we reinier both pot and plant, and even find in the 
one an additional nutriment for the other. The sub- 
sequent treatment does not differ at all from that of 
plants sown and cultivated in the open air. 

A debate has long existed on the preference to be 
given to old or to new seeds, and which, like many 
others, appears to be interminable. I'he Abbe Ro- 
15 



188 GARDENING. 

zier and his followers think that the most vigorous 
plants, of all species and kinds, are the best; and 
accordingly prefer new seeds, because more likely 
to produce such than old ones : while, on the other 
hand, their opponents maintain that plants may have 
too much vigour as well as too httle ; and that, 
M^henever an excess of vigour exists, according to 
all vegetable analogy, it shows itself in the produc- 
tion of stems and leaves, and not in that of flowers 
and fruits ; whence they conclude that old cucum- 
ber seeds (like those of all the rest of the cucurbi- 
taceae family) are better than new, because less vig- 
orous. The best practical use to be made of this 
controversy is to sow old seeds in the spring, when 
vegetation is most powerful, and new ones in July, 
when it begins to abate. 

Garlic (Allium). — A. genus of plants found grow- 
ing spontaneously in very diff'erent and even oppo- 
site climates. Jollyclerc says it grows without 
care in Sicily and in the south of France, and the 
continuator of Cook's Journal informs us that it was 
found in the open fields and forests of Kamschatka. 
Its species are many. Lamarck mentions thirty- 
nine, and Wildenow fifty-eight, the principal of 
which are the onion, the leek, the eschalot, and the 
cive. 

The onion is the Allium Cepa of the botanists, and, 
like other plants which have been long subjected to 
cultivation, has many varieties, distinguished by 
colour, size, and taste, and one of them by organi- 
zation (the Canadense), which carries its fruit on its 
head in the place of flowers. Of these varieties 
the red is the largest, but most acrid ; the pale red 
and the yellow are less in size than the red, and 
somewhat milder ; but the white (of Spain and 
Florence), though the smallest, are the mildest, the 
soonest fit for use, and the best for keeping. 'I'hey 
are eaten like apples, and without any wry faces. 
On analysis, they are found to possess less of those 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 189 

elements (oil and sulphur) which give to the com- 
mon onion its peculiar taste and smell. Light and 
frequent waterings have the effect of diminishing 
this odour.* 

A rich moist sand is the soil most favourable to 
the onion ; and " when to this," says Bosc, " we 
can add a long and hot summer, their development 
is prodigious. I have seen them a foot in diameter, 
and have heard of others which were larger. But 
it is to the south of France, to Sicily, to the isles of 
Greece, and particularly to Egypt, where we must 
go to see the onion in its most improved state." 
In clay or stony soils, or pure sand, the onion does 
not prosper ; it becomes small and acrid, and expe- 
rience shows that fermenting or half-rotted dung is 
by no means favourable to it. 

It is propagated either by the seed or by the 
bulbs.f In the first case you sow in shallow drills, 
twelve or fourteen inches apart, cover with mould, 
and when the plants come up, thin them, so that 
they may stand three or four inches from each oth- 
er. The sooner this is done in the spring after the 
earth has acquired a temperature favourable to ve- 
getation, the better will be your crop. It only re- 
mains to keep the earth loose and clean about the 
roots, and, if the vegetation be too vigorous, to 
break down the tops, so as to determine the juices 
to the bulbs. In the other case you employ the 
small and half-grown onion of the preceding fall 
instead of seed. In this consists all the difference 
of the two modes. The Canadense variety is, we 
believe, always managed in this way. 

To preserve onions, of whatever variety, through 
the winter, they are best formed into ropes (tied to 
each other), and kept in a dry and moderately warm 

* Cours d' Agriculture. 

t The Tartars propagate them by cutting. They sht the bulb 
downward, and leave to each cutting a portion of the fibrous 
roots. Cours d'Agriculture. 



190 GARDENING. 

cellar. A few of the largest of these are set out in 
the spring for seed ; and, when this is perfectly ripe, 
the stems are cut and the seed left in the capsules 
for use ; as experience shows that, preserved in 
this way, it retains its germinating power much 
longer than if threshed immediately after ripening. 

The leek is the Allium Porrum of the botanists, 
and a native of the southern parts of Europe. In 
Spain it has become one of the scourges of agricul- 
ture, as the fields are literally infested with it. In 
no country is this plant eaten alone, excepting per- 
haps in Spain, and the more southern provinces of 
France; but in many countries it is employed in 
the composition of soups. The culture of it resem- 
bles entirely that of the onion, excepting only that 
it requires more water. Of its many varieties we 
have seen only the long and the short. The former 
is the milder of the two ; the latter the more bul- 
bous, acrid, and hardy. 

The eschalot (Allium Ascalonicum) is said to be a 
native of Palestine. Of this there are three sub- 
varieties, two of which are generally found in gar- 
dens, the large and the small. The bottoms of 
these, when the plant is ripe, is composed of sev- 
eral bulbs of different sizes, under a common cov- 
ering, the larger of which are taken for culinary 
uses, and the smaller kept for planting. The cul- 
ture of these bulbs does not differ from that of the 
common, or of the Canadense varieties of the onion. 

The cive (Cepula) is a small plant much used in 
soups and salads. Of this there are three sub- 
varieties, the Cepula Minor, Cepula Britannica, and 
Cepula Major. The bulbs of all grow in clusters, 
and the plant is usually propagated by separating 
these into small tufts (half a dozen of the roots to- 
gether) every third or fourth year, and setting them 
out in borders or in beds eight or ten inches apart. 
The leaves only are used, and, to have these tender, 
they must be cut often. In the fall and on the ap- 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 191 

proach of frost, clip them close to the ground, and 
cover the roots with dung or stable litter. They 
require little if any other care, and will last many 
years. 

Lettuce (Lactuca). — Of the native country of this 
plant we are not sufficiently assured. Lamarck 
thinks that the Quercina of Linnaeus (a product of 
an island in the Baltic) is the type of the genus, 
while Rozier regards the Scareola of the same au- 
thor as entitled to that distinction. Of the known 
species there are twenty-one ;* the most remarka- 
ble of which are the Capitata, the Romana, and the 
Spinosa. The first and second are found in all 
kitchen gardens, while the third is rather a medici- 
nal than a culinary plant, and principally useful for 
its narcotic powers, which are said to be little in- 
ferior to those of opium. The varieties of the Cap- 
itata and Romana have, by long culture, been mul- 
tiplied to the number of one hundred and twenty, 
and are separated by lines so nearly imperceptible 
and so difficult to characterize, that botanists have 
found it convenient to arrange them into series, the 
principal of which are, 1st, the Head Lettuce ; 2d, 
the Curled Lettuce ; and, 3d, the Lettuce with open, 
straight, and erect leaves. These are again sub- 
divided by gardeners, according to the season most 
favourable to the plants respectively, as spring, 
summer, fall, or winter lettuce; and as this view of 
them is likely to be best known and most useful, 
we shall employ it in what we have to say on the 
subject. 

The varieties known by the names of the brown 
Dutch, Capuchin green, and grand admiral (being 
the moBt hardy), are those which should be sown 
in the fall, to remain in the ground through the win- 
ter, and vegetate early in the spring. If the soil be 

* Brisseau Mirbel. One of these species is American (Lac- 
tuca Elongata of Dr. Muhlenberg). 



192 GARDENING 

clayey, the beds should be thoroughly manured and 
dug in the month of October, and thrown up into 
four-feet ridges, well trenched, and with an inclina- 
tion on one of their sides or corners to carry off 
superfluous moisture. The seed should now be 
sown and covered with a short-toothed rake, and 
subsequently, as the frost approaches, with a light 
layer of stable litter. This should be removed in 
the spring, and the surfaces of the beds loosened 
with an iron-toothed rake. The first vegetation 
that shows itself will be that of the lettuce, and, if 
too thickly sown, the surplus plants should be taken 
up, and set out in rows for head-salad. In warm 
and sandy soils the treatment is the same, with the 
exception that the trenching and ridging will be un- 
necessary : but, in every kind of soil, the precocity 
of the crop will be best assured by a temporary wall 
of straw or cornstalks, held together by a few stakes 
and wattles, and so placed as to protect the beds 
from north and northwest winds. 

The varieties most approved for spring culture 
are the white, the green, the spotted coss, the Sile- 
sia, the Great Mogul, and the India ; for summer 
use, the white Dutch, the imperial, the Aleppo, and 
the green Egyptian ;* and for that of autumn, as 
already stated, the white coss, the brown Dutch, 
the grand admiral, and the New-Zealand. We need 
scarcely remark, that the straight-leafed sort is best 
cultivated in broadcast, and does not require trans- 
planting, but that the curled and head lettuce cannot 
succeed without it. In summer culture this may be 
especially necessary, as the lettuce, like the cab 
bage, has at this season a strong propensity to run 

* Millar says that the white coss obtained the preference over 
all other branches of the family till the introduction of the 
green Egyptian. This is probably the variety mentioned by 
Oliver and Brugiere as forming the delight of the Egyptians, 
and which among them is eaten by all ranks at all hours. See 
Memoire sur I'Egypte. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 193 

to seed, which can only be effectually checked by 
transplanting. The plants should stand at the dis 
tance of ten or twelve inches apart in the rows. 
The curled sort, when the heads begin tc spread, 
should be tied up, and will then blanch fineljj-; but it 
must also be noticed that the effect of this compres- 
sion is to hasten the progress of vegetation, and, of 
course, to precipitate the seeding. 

All the varieties of the three series will grow well 
in hotbeds, but the Romana species is preferred for 
this culture, 1st, because it bears squeezing or 
crowding the best, and, 2d, because, by throwing up 
erect leaves, it occupies less room under the frames 
than either of the other sorts. 

The Melon {Cucumis Melo). — This is one of the 
many useful and delicious presents furnished by 
Asia to the rest of the world. There are but two 
species ; the melon with a rough or embroidered 
coat, and that with a thin and smooth skin. The 
first is called the musk, from its peculiar flavour, 
and the other, from its thin and abundant juices, 
the watermelon. Of each of these species there 
are many varieties, differing in shape and size, and 
in the colour of the rind and of the flesh. The most 
approved of the mnskmelon species are the cante- 
lope, the citron, the nutmeg, and the Persian ; and 
of the watermelon, the Carohna, the Maltese, the 
Candia, and the Chate or Egyptian.* 

Both species and all the varieties succeed best 
in a hot climate and sandy soil, and in .these their 
culture is easy and alike, and their product abun- 
dant; nor is it to be complained of here, where our 

* Prosper Alpin says that he las seen watermelons so large 
in Egypc, that three or four formed the ordmary load of a cam- 
el. Of this species there are seven known varieties, according 
to Brisseau Mirbel. The Chate is one of these, and the Egyp- 
tian mode of using it is to make a hole in the side, through 
which, by means of a stick, they reduce the pulp to a liquid. 
This is then poured into a cup and drank. 



194 GARDENING. 

summers are frequently long, and hot, aiv 1 dry. To 
succeed in raising them for market, the Honjieur 
method, as described by M. Calvel, may be employ- 
ed. Select a spot well defended against the north 
wind, and open to the sun throughout the day. If 
such is not to be found in your garden, create a 
temporary and artificial shelter producing the same 
effect. At the end of March, form holes two feet in 
diameter, and distant from each other seven feet 
and a half; fill these with horse-dung and litter, or 
a mixture of mould, dung, and sand. At the end of 
twenty days, cover the holes which have been thus 
filled with hand glasses. When the heat rises to 
36 of Reaumur, sow the seeds four inches apart ; and 
when the plants have acquired two or three leaves, 
pinch off the end of the branch or runner.* This 
will produce lateral branches, which must again be 
pinched off so soon as they respectively attain the 
length of ten inches. When the plant has out- 
grown the glass, the latter becomes useless and 
may be removed ; but, should the weather be wet or 
chilly, substitute coverings of clean straw for that 
of the glasses, until the young plant becomes strong 
enough to bear the open air. Two or three melons 
only are left to each vine, and under each of these 
is placed a slate, without which the upper and under 
sides will not ripen together. Two months are re- 
quired to mature them. The people of Honfleur at- 
tribute their success in melon-raising to the sea va- 
pour which surrounds them, and to the saline parti- 

* There is much controversy among gardeners and savants on 
this point ; nor are the pinchers entirely united in opinion how far 
this practice should be carried. Some content themselves witti 
taking off the cotyledons when the plant has acquired three or 
four leaves, while others take off the principal branches at the 
lirst eye above the fruit, and suppress all the secondary brancR 
es, male tiowers, and tendrils. " These operations," says M 
Bosc, " are founded in bad reasoning. A cutting which sup 
presses two thirds of the plant at once cannot fail to disorgan 
ize what rema^"Ds." 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 195 

cles contained i a it ; an advantage to be anywhere 
commanded by dissolving a little salt in the water 
employed to mciisten them. 

If we want melons at a period earlier than this 
method will give them, we must employ a higher 
degree and longer continuance of artificial heat ; in 
a word, we must resort to hotbeds ; and in these the 
point most important, and, at the same tim6, the 
most difficult of attainment, is to secure a certain 
degree of heat, and no more, throughout the whole 
process. To lessen the difficulty in this case, gar- 
deners who understand their trade make choice of 
those varieties which have the thinnest skins and 
the least bulk ; as experience proves that, other 
things being equal, they require less heat* than 
those of thicker rinds and greater size, and are, of 
course, less subject to some of the accidents to 
which this species of culture is exposed. In choo- 
sing the seeds, those of the last year are only to be 
used, because they are of quicker vegetation than 
old ones, and, accordingly, best fulfil the intention of 
the hotbed, which is to give earl]/ fruit. Another 
practice conducive to the safety of the plants is to 
sow the seed in small pots, and then to plunge them 
into a hotbed. If the heat be deficient, they are, in 
this case, made no worse than they would have 
been if sown directly in the bed ; and if it be ex- 
cessive, it is only necessary to raise the pots, with- 
out in the smallest degree disturbing the plant. 
These things being premised, it only remains to 
show what ought to be the subsequent management 
after the seed has been sown and the pots placed 
under the frames. One of the most important points 
now to be observed is sufficiently to ventilate the 

* No one is ignorant that surfaces augment as the squares, 
and that soUds follow the proportion of cubes. If, for instance, 
the surface of the melon be four, the quantity of its matter will 
be eight; and if the surface of another melon be nine, its matter 
will be equal to t venty-seven. 



196 GARDEV/ING. 

bed, as well before as after the plants show them- 
selves. This should be done at midday and in sun- 
shine, and as often as a necessity for it shall be in- 
dicated by an accumulation of steam under the 
glasses. At night these (the glasses) should be care 
fully covered with matting. These two prelimina- 
ries (ventilation in the day and covering at night) 
being carefully observed, your plants will soon show 
themselves in a vigorous and healthy state, and 
may be kept in that condition by a continuation of 
the same means, and by moderately moistening the 
earth when it shall appear to have become loo dry. 
The water employed should be of the temperature 
of the air under the frames ; and, to secure this, it is 
well to keep a supply of it in a pot placed in a cor- 
ner of the hotbed. In about a month, the plants 
thus raised will be fit for transferring to a second 
and larger hotbed, constructed like the preceding,* 
with the exception that the mass of dung must now 
be greater, and that, after earthing, the bed should 
not be less than three and a half or four feet in 
depth. The plants, with the earth in which they 
grow, are now to be taken from the pots ; an opera- 
tion in which practice only will make us expert, and 
which consists in placing the neck of the plant be- 
tween the first and second finger of the left hand, 
reversing the pot, and gently striking its sides until 
the earth be disengaged. The discharged mass is 
then placed in a hole previously prepared in the 
square, where it is intended the plant shall ripen and 
produce. The male flowers should not be disturb- 
ed. When they have fulfilled the intentions of na- 
ture, they will fall of themselves ; and if the branches 
be vigorous and long, stretch them carefully over a 
level surface, and bury every fourth or fifth joint. 
This is best done by means of a wooden crotchet. 
The objects of pinching or shortening the stem are 

* See article Asparagus for the formation of hotbeds. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 197 

thus completely fulfilled, without any of the risk 
which attends that op( ration, and with advantages 
peculiar to this method ; since, wherever the plant 
is buried, new roots are formed for the better nutri- 
tion of the stem and the fruit. Melons should be 
permitted to acquire a bulk not less than one inch 
in diameter before you venture on reducing their 
number, and no reduction of the leaves should be 
made at any time ; for from the size, number, and 
thickness of these, and the smallness and little ex- 
tension of the roots, it is evident that this plant de- 
rives more of its nutriment from the atmosphere 
than from the earth. If the weather be dry, multi- 
ply the hoeings, but water sparingly, as |(l|ny ex- 
periments show that water alters the juices of the 
fruit, and that, though it may augment its quantity, 
it never fails to degrade its quality. The ripeness 
of the muskmelon is known by its colour and its 
odour, and by the drying of the stem where it at 
taches itself to the fruit.* The watermelon fur- 
nishes neither of these signs, but affords another 
peculiar to itself, a hollow sound on being struck on 
the rind, the result of an actual hollowness, begin- 
ning and increasing with its maturity. The seeds 
of both species are best preserved by drying in the 
shade, and in a portion of their own juice. 

Egg Plant.— JIelongena {Solanum Melongena of 
Lin.). — Of this pint the principal varieties are the 
long purple and the long yellow, each of which 
has a sub-variety which is round. Like other plants 
of tropical origin, it requires a dry soil and warm 
weather, and with these advantages grows vigor- 
ously and bears abundantly. To have early plants, 
sow the seeds in a hotbed towards the end of March, 
and, as soon as the frosts are over, transfer the young 
plants to the open ground and a southern exposure. 

* When fit tc pick, the stem will separate from the fruit by a 
,?entle pressure of the thumb. It will be in best eating cond» 
tion the follow'.ig day. — J. B. 



198 GARDENING. 

Keep them clean, and water them (if the weather 
be dry) often, but lightly. To have a succession of 
this fruit throughout the summer, you must occa- 
sionally renew the sowings. A few of the largest 
plants should be left for seed, and when the fruit be- 
gins to rot is the time for taking it. Cut off the 
plant and dry it in the shade, for seed immediately 
removed from the pulp is rarely good. 

The family connexions of this plant (the Sola- 
nums) have made some persons questi(;n its salubri- 
ty, but, as we think, without reason. If in certain 
cases it prove indigestible, of what fruit may not 
the san^ be said, particularly if eaten to excess 1 
The JHleral impunity with which our southern 
neighbours use. it, even habitually and largely, is 
in itself a sufficient guarantee of the safety with 
which it may be, occasionally and temperately, em- 
ployed here. 

Mustard (Sinapis). — Two species of the mustard 
are objects of garden culture : the black, which is 
cultivated for the seed, and the white, which is a 
good substitute for spinach, and which is sometimes 
used with pepper-grass as an ingredient in salads.* 
Both species grow well in a great diversity of soils, 
and with a small portion of labour; but the richer 
the soil and the greater the care, the more vigor- 
ous will be the plants. ^ 

If the seed of the first specieWoe our object, we 
should remember that, as the pods do not either 
form or ripen but in succession, we must not delay 
our harvest until all have been matured : as in this 
case we should lose the seed soonest ripe (which 
is always the best), for the sake of preserving that 
which is later and worse. The best rule, therefore, 
is to pull up or cut off the crop as soon as the stems 

* In Spain, and throughout the south of Europe, the seed of 
the white species ir preferred for the fabrication of mustard; 
because g ving a whiter and milder flour than the seed of the 
black. 



K1TCHE(.( GARDEN. 199 

become yellof*', and carry it into the barn, where it 
may remain, covered with straw, for a month. At 
the end of this time it will be fit to thresh ; and this 
should be done on cloths, and not with flails, since 
these would bruise and break the seed ; but wiili 
bunches of rods. Passed two or three ti mes through 
a fanning mill, it will be fit for use ; and the sooner 
it is used after cleaning, the better mustard it will 
make.* 

The Mushroom {Agaricus of Lin. , Fungus of Tour.). 
— The latter of these botanists numbers not fewer 
than seventy-five plants of this genus, diff"ering from 
each other in colour, in smell, and in the size, form, 
and number of their heads or chapeaux ; and With- 
ering, if we do not mistake, makes them to amount 
to more than two hundred. To describe, or even 
to name them, would be an unprofitable task, and 
entirely beside the object of the present work ; as of 
the whole number, the Agaricus Campestris, or Fun- 
gus Sativus Equinus, is the only species admitted 
into garden culture. 

This plant is^ propagated from the seeds only : 
which are threa'ds or fibres of a white colour, found 
m old pasture grounds, in masses of rotten horse- 
dung, sometimes under stable floors, and frequently 
in the remains of old hotbeds. They are also al- 
ways to be met with on the growing plant, some- 
times on the upper, at others on the under surface, 
and oftener in the interior. Their extreme small- 
ness makes them difficult to detect ; but, by placing 
the plant on ice, and enclosing it for a day or two, 
they may be readily discovered, and will be found 
to be semeniform, and in this respect differing from 
the seeds of all other vegetables, and even raising 
a doubt whether the mushroom does not partake 
more of the animal than of the vegetable charac- 
ter. Nor is this fact the only one that warrants 

* Its duration seems to be limited to two years ; older than 
this, it is rarely good.— Bosc. 



200 GARDENING. 

the suggestion ; s nee, on analysis, it ts found that 
the product of the mushroom is almost altogether 
animal ; whence it is that those botanists, who are 
tenacious of what is called the natural order, make 
it the first vegetable link in the chain, as zoologists 
make the polypus the last in the animal series. 

Another suggestion, of more practical importance, 
is that, whether animal or vegetable, the mushroom 
is often poisonous ; either from some quality inhe- 
rent in itself, or from some adventitious matter (such 
as the larvae of insects) being imbibed and held by 
its spongy surface. On this head there has been no 
want either of inquiry or of admonition. Natural- 
ists, in succession, from Pliny to Parmentier, have 
investigated the subject, and come to nearly the 
same conclusion, viz., " that many species of the 
mushrooms are active poisons,* and that the best 
are dangerous, as well from the total want of any 
general rule for distinguishing between the good and 
the bad,t as from the tendency of all to produce in- 
digestion."J In despite, however, of these sage dis- 
coveries and councils, the mushroom continues to 
be eaten, and even to be a favourite*; for, not con- 
tented with the abundance of the article provided 
by nature at a particular season, means are employ- 
ed to have it at all seasons, and it is of this culture 
we have now to speak. 

Prepare a bed early in October, either in a corner 
of the hothouse, if you have one, or of a dry and 
warm cellar. The width of the bed at the bottom 
should not be less than four feet, and its length pro- 

* Geoffroi, Paulet, and others. 

t " It has been said that the mushroom which it is safe to 
eat is distmguished from the bad by a membrane which sur- 
rounds the footstalk. This sign is, however, the less sure, as 
this membrane is found to belong to a species the most danger 
ous." Phytalogie Universelle, vol. ii., p. 161. 

X Parmentier on Poisonous Mushrooms, Strong vinegar and 
fimetics are the surest remedies against the eifects of these. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. ^ 201 

portioned to the quantity of spawn provided. Its 
sides should rise perpendicularly one foot, and should 
afterward decrease to the centre, forming four slo- 
ping surfaces. We need hardly say that the male- 
rials of the bed at this stage of the business must 
be horse-dung, well forked and pressed together, to 
prevent its settling unequally. It should then be 
covered with long straw, as well to exclude frost 
as to keep in the volatile parts of the mass, which 
wrould otherwise escape. After ten days the tem- 
perature of the bed will be sufficiently moderated, 
when the straw is to be removed, and a covering of 
good mould, to the depth of an inch, laid over the 
dung. On this the seed or spawn of the mushroom 
is to be placed in rows, six inches apart, occupying 
all the sloping parts of the bed, which is again to be 
covered with a second inch of fresh mould and a 
coat of straw. If your bed has been well con- 
structed your mushrooms will be fit for use at the 
end of five or six weeks, and will continue to be 
productive for several months. Should you, how- 
ever, in the course of the winter, find its productive- 
ness diminished, take off nearly all the original 
covering, and replace it with eight or ten inches of 
fresh dung and a coat of clean straw. This, by 
creating a new heat, will revive the action of the 
spawn, and give a long succession of mushrooms. 

The flavour of this vegetable is highest in the 
button state ; when the heads attain to the diameter 
of an inch, they are still good, and most profitable 
in the market ; but, when fully developed, they are 
not worth picking. 

Parsley {Apium Petrosihnum). — A native of Sar- 
dinia, according to Jollyclerc, and, according to 
Bosc, an article without which the cook could not 
exercise his trade.* There are three or four varie- 

* " Oter le persil d'entre les mains d'unquisinierc'est presque 
le nietra dans I'irnpossibilite d'exercer son art." 

Take away the parsley from the cook, and you make it irc- 
''f>p-;ible tor him to practise his art. 



202 , GARDENING. 

eties, the fine, the curled, the variegated, and the 
large-rooted. Of these the curled is the most deli- 
cate, hut most apt to degenerate. The large-rooted 
is the hardiest, least liable to change, most abun- 
dant in foliage, and quicker in renewing itself. 
These circumstances give it the preference. 

Parsley will grow in almost any soil, but prefers 
that which is light, and fresh, and rich. It is best 
sown in the spring in a well-laboured bed, manured 
with old and thoroughly rotted dung, and in rows 
sufficiently far apart to admit the hoe and the 
weeder. The cultivator must not be out of pa- 
tience at the slowness with which it shows itself. 
It seldom appears before forty days, and not always 
at the end of that term. Hoeing and watering are, 
however, all it requires after it does appear. The 
leaves are cropped in the fall, and hung up in bun- 
dles for winter use. If the soil in which the plants 
grow be stiff and moist, the roots ought to be cov- 
ered in the fall, otherwise there is a risk of their 
being thrown out by the frost. 

Parsnip (Pastinaca). — Of this there are five spe- 
cies, but one of which (Pastinaca Sativa) is admit- 
ted into the garden. This has two varieties, the 
round or turnip parsnip, and the Siam, neither ot 
which is much known. 

Like other tap-rooted plants, the pastinaca thrives 
best in a rich, deep, friable soil, growing in the 
drills where it was originally sown, and undisturbed 
by transplanting. The rows should be twelve or 
fourteen inches apart, and four of these in a bedj 
and the plants themselves should not stand nearer 
together than eight inches. 

The first crop may be sown in March, as no de- 
gree of cold injures either the seed or the plant; 
but the seedtime of the main or winter crop need 
not begin till the first of June, as enough of the sea- 
son will then be left to mature it, and as the hard- 
est frosts but make it better. It is evidently a plant 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 203 

of northern origin, contains much sugar, is very nu- 
tritious, and merits more both of cultivation and 
use than it has received. 

The Pex {Pisum) is a native of the south of Eu- 
rope, of which, accordingto Linnaeus, there are four 
species, and according to Millar six, while other bot- 
anists recognise only two (the field and the garden), 
and some even contend that the latter of these is 
merely a variety of the former, produced by culti- 
vation. What these naturalists better agree in is 
the arrangement of the whole family into two 
classes, those having coriaceous pods (tough and 
parchment like), and those having pods tender and 
edible, like the pea itself. These are again subdi- 
vided into dwarfs and climbers, and, for more prac- 
tical use, into early and late pease. Of the for- 
mer, in their order of ripening, the most approved 
sorts are, the early frame, early Charlton, and 
golden Hotspur, and of the latter, in the same or- 
der, the large marrowfat, the white Rounsevil, the 
Spanish Marotto, and large imperial.* The dwarfs 
are generally employed in hotbed culture, which, 
however, succeeds badly, and is neither worth at- 
tending to or describing, and the less so as early 
crops may be more certainly had by sowing in the 
fall in sheltered situations, and covering in the win- 
ter with a layer of leaves, and another of long sta- 
ble litter loosely applied, to keep the leaves in 
their places. After the earth acquires a temper- 
ature favourable to vegetation, your pea-sowings 
should be made once a fortnight to keep up a regu- 

* The dwarf sugar, the dwarf Spanish, and Lead man's dwarf, 
may be usefully interposed between these. These dwarf vari 
eties are all excellent, the last, perhaps, more prolific than any 
other of the family. In France the varieties of early and late 
pease are different, or, at least, called by different names from 
those we have mentioned. The series of both sorts there are, 
the Michaux of Holland, the baron, the Blois, the cluster, and 
the forty days, which are early ; and the nonpareil, the Laurens, 
the Swiss, the Eul Noir, and the Calmart, which are late 
16 



204 GARDENING. 

lar and successive supply. A loose and warm soil 
is most favourable to this vegetable, virhich, by-the- 
way, is neither improved in quality nor quantity 
by stable manure. The soil of Clichy, and of Point 
de jour des Colombe, &c., &c., in the neighbour- 
hood of Paris, is a pure sand, principally devoted 
to pea-crops, and yielding these most abundantly, 
without the application of dung, new or old. What, 
however, is essential in their treatment is, frequent 
hoeing, and occasional watering if the weather be 
dry, and seasonable propping for the tall sorts, 
which ought to be completed by the time the plants 
get to be three or four inches high. All the varie- 
ties of this last description of the pea require double 
the room given to dwarfs. The rows in which they 
stand should not, therefore, be less than four feet 
apart, and they should grow in these six inches 
from each other, and their covering should not ex- 
ceed two inches, nor be less than one, according to 
the nature and condition of the soil in which they 
are sown. We nee,d scarcely remark that the dif- 
ferent varieties should be cultivated apart. 

Like other vegetables, the pea is susceptible of 
considerable improvement, by the simple means 
of marking the finest plants of each variety, and 
keeping them for seed. Wilson's frame and the 
Knight pea have been formed in this way, and af- 
ford sufficient proof of the wonders produced by a 
very small degree of observation and care. 

The general rehsh for the pea has induced the 
employment of means to have them on the table 
the year round. The methods in use for this pur- 
pose are two. According to one of them, the pea 
is subjected to the action of boiling water for two 
or three minutes, when it is withdrawn, cooled in 
fresh spring water, dried in the shade, and, lastly, 
hung up in paper bags in a dry and well-aired closet. 
The other process is later and perhaps better ; in 
this the pease are put into bottles, which are aftei- 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 205 

ward hermetically sealed, and subjected to the ac- 
tion of boiling water for fifteen minutes. In both 
cases the pease require boiling a second time in the 
ordinary way to make them fit for the table ; and, 
when preserved according to the first method, a 
great deal of boiling; Boscsays twenty-four hours. 
All the varieties are not found to be equally fit for 
this process ; the Michaux of Holland and the Cal- 
mart are those exclusively employed in France. 

Pepper, red (Capsicum). — This is the Annual 
Pepper of the botanists, of which there are two 
species, the Grossum and the Frutescens, the latter 
of which we have only seen in hothouses. 

Like other natives of southern climates, the cap- 
sicum requires a warm soil, and, if sown early, a 
good deal of dung and a favourable exposition. The 
seeds may be placed in rows three feet apart, or in 
hills at the hke distance from each other. In dry 
weather the plants require watering, and, in all 
kinds of weather, weeding and hoeing. ' The seeds 
are best preserved by running a string through the 
pods and hanging them up in a dry garret. 

The Potato {Solarium Tuberosum). — Of the sixty 
varieties of this vegetable, two are particularly rec- 
ommended for garden culture ; the one from its 
precocity (ripening in forty days), and the other 
from its excellence. This last is most generally 
known by the name of the t/am potato, and is so 
called from its great resemblance (in taste) to the 
vegetable of that name. 

The hardiness of this plant enables it to grow in 
any soil and under very negligent culture ; but the 
soil most propitious to it is a rich loam, and the 
more hoeing and hilling it gets before it flowers, 
the better will be your crop. In gardens it is best 
placed in rows three ff et apart. Gypsum applied 
lo the leaves of the j/owing plant will be found 
useful. 

The Potato (sweet) is a species of convolvulus, 



206 GARDENING. 

originally from Asia, making great part of the food 
of tropical latitudes, and occasionally cultivated as 
far north as Long Island. Of its many varieties 
three only are known to us, and these take their de- 
nominations from their colour. The red is the ear- 
liest, the yellow the sweetest, and the white the 
largest. In the sandy and humid parts of South 
Carolina, all these races attain to a considerable 
size. On Long Island they are small and (what is 
more to be regretted) very inferior in the nutritive 
and agreeable qualities which distinguish the fruit 
when growing under more favourable circum- 
stances.* 

This plant is easily cultivated, and, whether it 
gives us fruit or not, its beauty is such as will well 
repay us for the trouble of raising it. Score the 
square intended for it (which should have been pre- 
viously well dug and manured) both ways, and at 
the distance of four feet each way, and place and 
cover the seeds at the angles of intersection. When 
the plants rise, keep them clear of weeds, and, as 
in hilling corn, draw up the earth well about the 
roots. 

The Pumpkin is a species of the Cucurbita. 
Among its varieties are the Maltese, the Barbary, 
the Iroquois, and the white, which is the winter 
pumpkin. t The culture of all is the same. They 
are less nice than cucumbers and melons with re- 
gard to soil, and will grow in any dry and well-la- 
boured earth. The best time for sowing them is 
between the 15th and 25th of May. 

The Radish {Raphanus Sativus). — Of this there are 

* Parmentier analyzed the sweet potatoe in 1780. There- 
suit was sugar, amidon, and an extractive matter ; but he well 
remarks that " these principles vary with the age and variety of 
the plant, and with the soil and ch nate in which it grows." 

t Many new varieties have been recently introduced, and 
among the best is the Valparaiso, known under different names. 
-J.B. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 207 

two species, distinguished only by the shape of 
their roots ; that of the one being long, and that of 
the other round. The principal varieties of llie for- 
mer are the early, the salmon, the red, and tlie 
large, which last has no characteristic colour. 
Those of the latter species are also distinguished by 
their different colour and size ; some are large, oth- 
ers small ; some are white, others black ; some are 
ash-coloured, and others are pink and purple. All 
require a similar soil (loose and rich) and a careful, 
seasonable, and cleanly cultivation. The sowings 
of the radish, like tliose of spinach and lettuce, 
must be frequent, " Sow every fourteen days" is 
the common rule, and it seems to be a good one, 
and founded on the known disposition of the plant 
to run promptly to seed. 

The Radish [horse] {Cochlearia Armoriacia) . — 
This plant is one of six species having the common 
English name of spleenwort or scurvy-grass. It, is 
generally propagated by cuttings or offsets taken 
from the crown of the parent plant, and having each 
a bud, and set in a trench ten inches deep and four 
or five inches apart. The cuttings are then covered 
with mould, and the surfaces of the trenches kept 
clean and loose. The plants will soon take root, 
and, after doing so, will fear no rivals. 

Rampion {Campanula). — Two or more species of 
this plant are cultivated for purposes merely of dec- 
oration ; as the pyramidal, the peach-leaf, the mir- 
ror of Venus, &c. ; but that which alone interests us 
is the Hortensis, and which, from its abundant mu- 
cilage, is regarded as both nutritive and refreshing, 
and an excellent ingredient in salads. The seed is 
remarkably small, and should be sown thin in the 
month of .lune. It requires little, if any, covering 
and germinates best in a loose, moist soil, and shady 
situation. 

Rosemary {Rosmarinus Officinalis). — The leaves 
of this plant abound in aroma, and are employed in 



208 GARDENING. 

soups and sauces. It is, besides, the basis oi the cel- 
ebrated liqueur called La Reine de Hongrie, and is 
yet more famous for giving to the honey of Nar- 
bonne its acknowledged superiority. The tops of 
the branches furnish an essential oil, which, accord- 
ing to the experiments of Proust, contain much 
camphire. It is propagated by cuttings and suck- 
ers. " Planted in the month of March six inches 
apart, and inserted two thirds of their lengths in the 
ground, they will take root freely, and by the month 
of September be fit for transplanting wherever they 
are destined to remain."* 

Rue {Ruta Graveolens), — This plant is a native of 
mountainous and arid regions, and, so far as we 
have any acquaintance with it, exclusively medici- 
nal; but, having obtained a place in the kitchen gar- 
den, it is not for us to reject it. As with other ar- 
ornatics, a light, and warm, and dry soil is that 
which agrees best with it. It is propagated from 
cuttings and offsets planted in March or April, and 
kept clear of weeds throughout the summer. Its 
beauty is much increased by lopping the branches 
close to the earth every fourth year. 

Rhubarb (Rheum). — Most of the known species of 
this plant are of Asiatic origin, but the two which 
alone enter into the food of man (the Rhaponticum 
and Undulatum) are natives of Thrace and Russia.f 
The stalks, which are the parts used for culinary 

» M'Mahon. 

t Several new varieties, if not new species, of this plant, 
adapted to culinary uses, have recently been introduced. Among 
those most worthy of culture is the giant, the leaf stems of 
which grow upon rich soils to the size of six and seven inches 
in circumference, and give a leaf a yard in diameter. Those 
who are fond of pies and tarts cannot obtain a more convenient 
article for these than the rhubarb, from March to September; 
for, placed in a tub with earth in autumn, and set in a cellar or 
basement kitchen, and merely watered, the roots will send forth 
an abundance of stalks, which may be used early in March. — 
J.B. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 209 

purposes, grow to the length of twenty-four inches, 
and acquire the thickness of a man's thumb. Strip- 
ped of their outer covering, they yield a substance 
slightly acid,* which is much admired, and employ- 
ed as an ingredient in the composition of puddings 
and tarts. Cobbett supposes that a hundred wagon- 
loads of these stalks are annually sold in the markets 
of London, at a shilling sterling per bunch.f 

The rhubarb is propagated sometimes from seeds, 
and oftener from offsets from old roots. J It re- 
quires a soil dry, and rich, and well-laboured. Two 
years are necessary to render it fit for use, but, 
once established, it will last a century. 

Sage {Salvia Officinalis). — This is one of the hun- 
dred and more species of Salvia enumerated by 
botanists. It has many varieties, the most impor- 
tant of which are, the large-leaved, the curled,^ the 
three-coloured, and the variegated. They are all 
propagated alike, by seeds, by suckers, and by por- 
tions of old roots, and grow well in any soil not 
positively wet. Till three or four years old, they 
have a healthy and agreeable appearance, forming 
full and regular tufts; but after this period they 
lose the central branches, and even become ragged 
and broken on their edges. The treatment already 
suggested for rue might be useful for sage. Under 
it the roots would probably renew their vigour, and 
throw out new and healthy shoots ; but of this the- 
ory we have no experience. 

Salsify {Tragopogon). — This is a native of the 
southern mountains of Europe, has been long cul- 

* The stalks, like the roots, yield, on analysis, sulphur and 
lime. 

t American Gardener. 

i The best mode is to propagate from seeds which ripen in 
fuly. If then sown, the plants may be put out three feet apart 
the next spring, and will give a good crop the second summer af- 
ter transplanting.— J. B. 

(} This is made a distinct species by Wildenow, under the 
nam'> of Salvia Tomentosa. 



210 GARDENING. 

tivated, and has several varieties, of which it is un- 
necessary to speak. Deep and humid soils are most 
favourable to its production. After the preliminary 
labours of digging and smoothing, the square in- 
tended for it should be formed into four-feet beds, 
and the seeds be sown and covered in rows eight, 
or ten inches apart. This should be done as soon 
as the frosts are over in the spring, for the earlier 
the sowing the finer will be the crop. Two hoe- 
ings, and frequent watering during dry and hot 
weather, are indispensable. It is only in the au- 
tumn that the plants attain to their full size. In 
mild climates they winter where they grow, like 
parsnips ; but in cold regions they must be taken 
up and preserved in roothouses or cellars, under 
coverings of sand or litter. Plants intended to give 
seed should be left to winter in the ground where 
they have grown, and be there protected by leaves, 
straw, &c. 

Salsify Black {Scorzonera Hispanica) affects the 
same kind of soil, and requires the same kind of 
culture and management as the preceding kind, and 
is of the same family. 

Savory {Satureja). — Of this plant Millar describes 
nine species, but two of which come within our 
views, and which are denominated from two of the 
seasons, winter and summer. The former is a per- 
ennial plant, and is propagated from seeds or slips ; 
the latter is an annual, and is propagated from seeds 
only. For either process, sowing or planting, April 
is the time. Neither sort is nice with regard to 
soil ; and it is said of one of them (the winter spe- 
cies) that it grows best in barren sands and bleak 
situations. 

Seakale* {Crambe Maratima) is a native of the 
seashore, growing vigorously in sands occasionally 

* We have found by experience that good seakale, like Frank- 
lin's whistle, costs more than it is worth. We have given up 
its culture.— J. B. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 211 

inundated by salt water. When the head of the 
plant first shows itself, it is white, and tender, and 
well-flavoured, and not inferior to asparagus ; but, 
after reaching the light and the air, it soon becomes 
green and bitter, and quite unfit for the table. The 
natural condition of the plant would appear to in- 
dicate the best mode of cultivating it, and that the 
bed destined for it should be pure sand, moistened 
by a solution of salt in water ; but we have on this 
head the assurance of practical gardeners, that, in a 
well-manured and thoroughly dug loam, the seakale 
does even better than in its natural bed.* This 
plant is propagated by cuttings and by seeds, 
and most surely by the former ; but the quality of 
the product is inferior to that given by the other 
mode.f In case of planting, your beds must be so 
prepared as to receive each two rows of the slips, 
which are to stand fourteen inches apart (in an up- 
right position), with their crowns not more than 
one inch under the surface. In five or six weeks 
they may show themselves above ground, and du- 
ring the second year, if kept free from weeds and 
occasionally watered, will be fit for use. \i sowing 
be preferred, after labouring the ground thoroughly, 
form a number of hills as for Indian corn, and sow 
in each six or eight seeds. Should they all vege- 
tate, they may be reduced to two, which you will 
manage in the way prescribed for the cuttings. In 
November, whether your bed has been filled with 
plants or with seedlings, be careful to cover them 
with a thick coat of well-rotted dung; and so 
soon in the ensuing spring or summer as you find 
them pushing through this covering, put over each 
a garden-pot inverted, having first stopped the bot- 
tom-holes. J The signal for cutting is when the 
plants have risen about three inches above the sur- 
face. 

* M'Mahon. + Idem. Millar. 

t The object in doing this is to exclude the light, for undei 
its influence the plant becomes green and bitter 

17 



212 GARDENING. 

The Skirret (Sium Sisarum of Tournefort). — This 
is called by Millar the Water Parsnip, and is found 
growing spontaneously in many parts of England, 
in moist or wet grounds. There are six species, 
but one of which is cultivated in the garden. The 
root, which is the only edible part of the plant, is 
long and fibrous, wholesome and nutritious ; but to 
some palates it is disagreeably sweet. It is propa 
gated indifferently from seeds or from cuttings, 
though Millar prefers the latter, as furnishing roots 
of greater size and better quality. April is the 
month most proper for either operation, sowing or 
planting. In both modes .the culture is in drills, 
taking care that the plants be not nearer than four 
or five inches to each other. The soil in which it 
succeeds best is a loose, moist loam ; and the cul- 
ture and subsequent management do not differ from 
those already described for parsnips. 

Sorrel {Rumex Acetosa of Linnaus). — Of this 
plant there are four species, distinguished by the 
shape and size of their leaves, as the pointed, the 
obtuse, the round, the large, the small, &c. All 
soils not positively dry or wet are adapted to this 
vegetable ; nor do they require more than a light 
dressing. It is propagated as well by cuttings as 
by seeds. In the former case the slips are put 
down in the fall, and in the latter the seeds are 
sown in the sprhig. In gathering it, many garden- 
ets cut off an entire tuft close to the ground ; but a 
better method, because more favourable to repro- 
duction, is to crop the outer leaves first, always 
leaving the central ones to be last taken.* We need 
scarcely mention that, besides culinary uses, sorrel 
furnishes an acid salt, much employed in taking out 
stains from linen, and that the roots yield a beauti- 
ful red water, known in medicine as a sudorific. f 

* This is the practice of the gardeners of Paris, 
t Bosc. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 213 

Spinach (Spinachia). — Of this there are but two 
known species, the Fera and the Oleracea ; the one 
a native of Siberia,* the other of Persia. fj It is the 
latter only that is known in garden culture, and of 
it there are four varieties, distinguished by the 
shape of their seeds, and. the greater or less abun- 
dance and size of their leaves, as follows : Spinach 
with sharp-pointed seeds and small leaves : spinach 
with round seeds and small leaves; spinach with 
pointed seeds and large leaves ; and spinach with 
round seeds and large leaves, commonly called 
spinach of Holland. The first of these varieties is 
recommended by its hardiness ; as it stands the win- 
ter better than either of the others, and is, of course, 
to be preferred for fall sowing. The third gives 
most foliage, and is fittest for spring culture. The 
fourth unites, in a great degree, the advantages of 
the first and third, bearing the winter well, and pro- 
ducing an abundance of foliage. If, therefore, we 
cultivate but one of these varieties, this is the one 
which we ought to prefer. The soil most proper 
for spinach is a moist, rich loam, well dug and well 
manured. The seed should be sown in drills six 
inches apart, and lightly covered. For fall sowing 
the middle of October is a good time ; and for the 
spring crop the seed should be sown the moment 
you are able to get it into the earth. To the for- 
mer a light covering of straw, during the winter, 
will be useful. According to the opinion of the 
French physicians, this plant is not only food, but 
physic ; and is hence emphatically called " Le balai 
de I'estomac" — the broom of the stomach — sweep- 
ing and deterging every hole and corner of that or 
gan, without giving pain, or in any degree inter- 

* Phyt. Univer., art. Epinard, -f Olivier. 

t The New-Zealand spinach has been recently introduced. 
It is an excellent pot herb ; but, being natural to a warmer cli- 
mate, it does not come forward till warm weather, and until 
other garden productions are in abundance. — J. B. 



214 GARDENING. 

rupting the ordinary avocations of the persons using 
it. It may be useful to remark, that, to have the 
full benefit of this nutritious and curative vegetable, 
the spring and summer sowings should be made 
every month, and that those of the latter should 
have a shaded or northern exposition, as otherwise 
they will run rapidly to seed. 

The Squash is a species of the cucurbita, and 
seems to be the link that connects the melon with 
the pumpkin. According to Millar, this species is 
very inconstant in its appearance, rarely preserving 
the same form three years in succession, sometimes 
taking that of a shrub, and at other times that of a 
vine. Our own experience does not warrant this 
reproach.* The*^ush and the Bell varieties appear 
to us to be sufficiently distinct, nor have we noticed 
any proneness in them to exchange characters. 
With regard to soil and culture, those which are 
fittest for the pumpkin are also most propitious to 
the squash. 

Thyme {Thymus) is of a species embracing not 
less than twenty varieties, but one of which (the 
common or cultivated) comes within the plan of 
our work. This is generally found in gardens, 
sometimes in tufts, and sometimes in rows; but, 
however placed, always growing best in poor, light, 
and warm soils. In those which are cold, stiff, or 
moist, it does not thrive ; its branches become rag- 
ged, its leaves few, its flowers faded, and their pe- 
culiar aroma is less strong. When cultivated under 
circumstances more propitious, it requires a change 
of place every fourth or fifth year. All the parts of 
this plant, but particularly the calix of its flower, 
yields an essential oil, yellow and odorous, and 

* The pumpkin and the squash seem to be first cousins, and 
consequently will intermix, and produce an mfirm progeny. 
They should be kept apart. The vegetable marrow is a new 
and superior variety; good both in its green and matured state 
whether for summer or winter use. — J. B. 



KITCHEN GARDEN. 215 

highly charged with camphire. In the kitchen it is 
used as an ingredient in sauces and stuffings, and 
in what are technically called forced meals. The 
plant may be propagated either by seed or by suck- 
ers, and requires only to be kept free from weeds 
or grasses. 

Tomatoes {Solanum Ly coper siciim). — This plant is 
of the same family with the potato, and, like it, is a 
native of Southern America. R has several species, 
two of which fall under our notice as garden vege 
tables, and are distinguished from each other only 
by a difference of size.* The smaller of these is 
held to be the parent plant, and has the advantage 
of ripening sooner than the other, and better resist- 
ing cold weather. To have an early crop, sow the 
seed in a warm and dry soil, and sheltered situation, 
in October,! and cover the bed with straw or stable 
litter during the winter. For summer and fall use 
sow again in May, and water freely. If the soil 
and situation be favourable, and the culture proper, 
the product will be great. Bosc says, " J'ai vu de 
ces pieds qui couvraient une toise de terrain, et qui 
fournissoient plusieurs centaines de fruits. "J The 
distance between the plants should not be less than 
two feet. 

Jerusalem Artichoke {Helianthus Tuherosus) is a 
native of the mountains of Chili, and a species of 
sunflower, having roots somewhat resembling pota- 
toes in bulk and shape, and more nearly approach- 
ing the artichoke in taste. Its nutritive principles 
are less abundant than those of the potato, carrot, 
&c. On analysis it yields neither sugar nor aniidon, 
and is not susceptible either of the panary or the 

* The varieties are now numerous, and differ in size and 
colour.— J. B. 

t They may as well be sown in a hotbed in April. The plants 
will attain sufificient size to be planted in the op%n ground as 
soon as the season will permit. — J. B. 

X i have seen as many of these plants as covered a space of two 
yards square, producing several hundred heads of fruit. 



216 GARDENING. 

vinous fermentation. It is, however, recommended 

by its hardiness (fearing neither cold, nor heat, nor 
drought) and by the cheapness of its culture ; for, if 
once committed to the earth, it calls for no additional 
care ; continuing itself, and spreading and flourish- 
ing in the midst of rivals and enemies. It is this 
last property which renders it so precious to the 
agriculturist as a permanent hog-pasture ; and the 
more so, as it will accommodate itself to any de- 
scription of soil, though that most congenial to it 
is a deep, moist, or marshy loam. Like the potato, 
it is propagated by cuttings. 

The Turnip {Rapa). — This plant is of the cabbage 
family. But, unlike its relations, it requires a loose, 
warm, and dry soil, either sandy or calcareous ; and 
as a manure, wood ashes rather ih^m dung. There 
are many varieties, four of which are common to 
garden and field culture, viz., the Dutch, whose ve- 
getation is most rapid, and, of course, fittest for early 
crops ; and the Swedish, the green, and the purple 
top, which do not succeed unless sown late, and 
which, on this account as well as on account of their 
greater solidity and less evaporation, are the most 
suitable for winter use. Turnip seed is generally 
sown broadcast; but the experiments of Lord Town- 
send have clearly established the preference of the 
row or drill method, as well for a greater economy 
of time and labour, as for a better and more abun- 
dant product. The time of sowing, as already in- 
dicated, will depend on the variety selected. If the 
Dutch, sow early ; if the ruta baga, sow about the 
1st of June ;* and if the green or purple top, do not 
sow till the last week of July or first week of 
August. After sufliciently covering the seed, press 
it down with a heavy roller; the object of which is 
not merely to bring the earth and the seed into con- 
tact, but t« protect the rising crop against the fly, as 
many experiments concur in proving that these in- 

* The J5lh or 20th is preferable.— J. B. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 217 

sects are much multiplied by leaving the surface of 
the earth loose and pervious, and much diminished 
by rendering it close and compact. 

The only variety of this plant made better, or, 
rather, not made worse by transplanting, is the rata 
baga. A few feet square will give a sufficient num- 
ber of plants. Draw and set these about a foot from 
each other, on ridges three feet apart. Keep the 
plants free from weeds during the whole course of 
their vegetation, and you will rarely fail to have an 
abundant crop. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

THE FRUIT GARDEN. 

Next to bread corn and culinary esculents, Ine 
products of this description of garden holds the 
highest place on the scale of table economy. As 
articles of food and drink, ripe fruits and their pre- 
pared juices are equally wholesome and pleasant; 
and in many complaints are auxiliary to medicine, 
while in others they serve as substitutes for it. 
Every portion of ground, therefore, set apart for 
the purposes of horticulture, should contain a few 
fruit-bearing trees and shrubs of the paore common 
and useful kinds (as apples, cherries, peaches, 
&c.), to be placed in the borders of its northern and 
western sides, where they will least interfere with 
other products, and even be useful in defending 
these from high and cold winds. But in all cases 
where the occupant has room for an exclusive fruit 
garden, this ought to be preferred, as possessing 
many advantages over the mixed kind, and particu- 
larly that of giving to trees and shrubs the soil, ex- 
position, culture, and arrangement best fitted for 
their several kinds and species. To the end, how- 



218 GARDENING. 

ever, that either plan may be pursued according to 
the taste or convenience pf the cultivator, we shall 
take up the list of fruit-giving plants under the com- 
mon and technical division oi kernel and stone fruits, 
berries and nuts ; and, under separate heads, indi- 
cate the soil, exposure, &c., &c., most proper for 
each. 

The Apple-tree (Mains) * — Of the many fruit- 
trees in cultivation, this may be deemed the most 
important; not only from the great abundance, di- 
versified character, and numerous uses of its pro- 
ducts, but from the small degree of care and labour 
required in its culture, and the uncommon facility 
vi^ith which it adapts itself to a great diversity of 
soils, climates, and situations. One of its varie- 
ties (the crab) is a native of our own forests ; but 
the cultivated sorts among us have all been deri- 
ved from Europe, as those of Europe were originally 
derived from Asia Minor. 

No general catalogue of the varieties of the ap- 
ple-tree has ever, so far as our reading extends, 
been given to the public, nor is it probable, from 
their great and increasing multiplication, that any 
successful attempt could now be made at their 
enumeration and description. In the time of Pliny 
twenty different sorts were known at Rome, whence 
they gradually spread themselves over the other 
parts of Europe. It was not till 1572, according to 
Stow, that they appeared in England. In 1629, 
Parkinson enumera.ied Jifti/ varieties growing there ; 
in 1650, Hartlib counted two hundred; and in 1822, 
London offered a list of two hundred and forty ap- 
proved sorts then selling at the London nurseries. f J 

* Linnaeus places it in the family of pears, and thence denom- 
inates it Pyrus malus; but Millar and others regard it as a dis- 
tinct genus. 

t Encyclopaedia of Gardening. 

j The varieties in the London Horticultural Garden alone 
exceed fourteen hundred, and this collection comprises but a 
part. — J. B. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 219 

In choosing between so many varieties, old and 
young, though disappointment would perhaps be 
impossible, still selection might not be easy ; and 
in this view it may not be amiss to furnish the 
reader with a short list, in a tabular form, of those 
sorts which stand highest in horticultural estima- 
tion, for the hardness and productiveness of the 
tree, the excellence of the fruit, and the variety of 
uses to which this may be applie.d.* (See next page.) 

It was perhaps a comparison between modern 
and ancient lists which first suggested the idea that 
" the varieties of the apple-tree have but a limited 
duration, and that they disappear by whole races." 
The Moil, the Redstreak, the Musts and the Golden 
Pippin, the Stire and the Fox Whelp, according to 
the observations of Knight,! are rapidly declining ; 
and some recent facts warrant us in the behef that 
our own Spitzenberg is fast hastening to its end. 

Before the discovery of this law of nature, little, 
if any, attention was given to the propagation of 
the apple-tree by modes other than those which 
perpetuate a favourite race ; and hence it was that 
scions, buds, layers, and cuttings, were long and ex- 
clusively employed. But this practice is now con- 
siderably qualified, and many horticulturists and am- 
ateurs are engaged in producing new varieties froni 
the seeds, and from a commixture of the farinas of 
sorts whose merits are already established. J Of 

* Such has been the improvement in the apple, that not more 
than one half of these varieties would now be ranked in the first 
class of fruit. — J. B. 

t Treatise on Apple and Pear Trees, p. 15. 

% The credit of this discovery is due to Mr. Knight, the dis- 
tinguished president of the Horticultural Society of London. 
On this point, however, there are skeptics, and of considerable 
name. Williamson and Speechley consider the deterioration of 
the apple-tree as accidental, not uniform ; as the temporary ef- 
fect of weather, not that of a settled law of nature ; and, there- 
fore, that " genial summers will restore to old trees their ordi- 
nary health and duration." — Hort. Trans , vol. iii., p. 291 ; and 
Hints, p. 188 



220 



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FRUIT GARDEN. 221 

hese different methods of propagation, the first we 
shall describe is that 

By seeds, which has two objects ; the supply of 
stems, on which to ingraft or inoculate old and fa- 
vourite races ; and the production of varieties which 
shall be entirely new. In the first of these cases, 
sound and thriving stocks are necessary ; and these 
are only to be had from the seeds of apples grown 
on healthy and vigorous trees.* In the other case, 
it is not enough that the parent plant be sound and 
thriving; it should possess those properties also 
which the cultivator is most desirous of giving to 
his orchard : such as bearing abundantly, giving its 
fruit early in the seasoft^ or of a fine flavour, or col- 
our, or size, &c., &c. The observance of these 
rules is indispensable to the success of all experi- 
ments made of this method ; and is so because the 
rules themselves are founded on an immutable law 
of nature, that vegetables, like animals, transmit their 
properties, good or had, to their offspring. 

The culture of the seeds, whether intended for 
stems or for fruit, will be the same for the first 
year. Sow them in autumn, in beds of light mel- 
low earth of middling quality ; cover them an inch 
thick with garden mould; and, at the end of the 

Table Apples. — Junating, Prince's Harvest, Bough, Summer 
Queen, Early Pearmain, Summer Rose, Codling, Maiden's 
Blush, Hagloe Crab, Catiline, Romanite or Rambo, Fall Pippin, 
Doctor Apple, Wine, Late Pearmain, Burlington, Greening, 
Bellflower, Newark Pippin, Pennock, Michael Henry, Spitzen- 
bergh, Newtown Pippin, Priestley, Lady Apple, Carthouse, 
Tewiisbury, Winter Blush. 

Cider Apples. — Hewes's Crab, Grayhouse, Winesap, Harrison, 
Styre, Roane's White Crab, Gloucester White, Redstreak, 
Campfield, American Pippin, Golden Rennet, Hagloe Crab, 
Cooper's Russeting, Ruckman's Pearmain. 

There are propagated in our nurseries several new varieties, 
obtained from seeds, worthy of cultivation. — Ediur. 

* The usual method of employing the pumice from a cider- 
mill is very slovenly, and necessarily rejects all discrimination 
between good and bad, sound and unsound stems. 



222 GARDENING. 

year, thin the plants to the distance of a foot from 
each other. Such of them as are intended for graft- 
ing or budding may remain in the nursery till these 
operations have been performed ; but those cultiva- 
ted with a view to new races should be transplant- 
ed, and in rows ten feet apart every way.* Left to 
themselves, they maybe slow in producing fruit; a 
circumstance which has engaged artists in a search 
after means which should bestow upon them an ar- 
tificial precocity. These divide themselves into two 
classes : such as operate exclusively on the soil, and 
such as apply directly to the plant. If the young 
tree abound in leaves, branches, and suckers, with 
a bark green, smooth, and shining, the remedy will 
consist in removing from its roots a portion of the 
original earth, and s'ubstituting for it a soil contain- 
ing less vegetable food ; such as sand, gravel, or 
schist, &c. If, on the other hand, the tree be 
small and weak, having little foliage and few branch- 
es, and a bark rough, dry, and spotted, there is rea- 
son to suspect that its want of fertility is occasion- 
ed by a want of nourishment, and we must hasten, 
by reversing the management just laid down, to give 
it an additional supply of food. As belonging to the 
second class of means, we may enumerate partial 
decortication, piercing, wiring, grafting, pegging, cut- 
ting a portion of the roots, &c., but all depending on 
the same principle, " the obstruction, in a greater 
or less degree, of the descending sap." Of these, 
the first (which has got the name of ringing) is the 
most ancient and best recommended. The Romans 
were well acquainted with it,t and Du Hamel revi- 
ved its use in France about the year 1733,| whence 
it extended itself to Holland and Germany.^ The 

* Encyclopaedia of Gardening, 
t Virgil and Columella. 

X Memoires de L'Academie des Sciences, 1788. 
^ Works of Dederich and Diel. Darwin's Phytologia de 
scribes and explains it, yet it was considered as a ne /v discover* 



FRUIT tfARDEN. 223 

practice, however, never became general; probably 
from discovering that the intended effect was not. al- 
ways produced, and that, in other respects, the tree 
was injured by liie process. Still, as some of our 
readers may wish to make the experiment for them- 
selves, we subjjuin the following directions : " Cut out 
with a knife a ring of the o i:cr and inner barls. If 
the tree be large, the excision should be made in 
the branches ; but if small, in the stock. In apple 
or other trees bearing kernel fruit, the wound should 
not be larger than will fill up in two, or, at most, three 
years ; and in peach or other stone-bearing fruit, in 
one year."* The time for doing this is early in the 
spring, and before the sap begins to circulate, as the 
rationale of the practice takes for granted that, " by 
preventing the descent of this below the ring, you 
accumulate a force above it, which shows itself in . 
the production of fruit buds." 

Another means of effecting this object is men- 
tioned by Williams (the discoverer of it), and con- 
sists altogether in leaving the plant to throw out 
lateral shoots, with little, if any restraint. By pur- 
suing this method, " the leaves soou take that pecu- 
liar conformation which is necessary to the produc- 
tion of blossom buds ; and seedling apples give fruit 
in four, five, and six years, instead of eight, ten, and 
even fifteen, as is the case by the usual method of 
planting close and pruning to naked stems. "f 

2. Of propagation by Cuttings. — Every variety of 
the apple-tree may be propagated by this method, 
and will give the finest fruit in the smallest com- 
pass for many years.J^ But it does not follow that 

by the London Horticultural Society as late as 1817! (See a 
paper from Dr. Nohden in the Transactions of that year.) And, 
what is hardly less extraordinary, Hemphill, a German clergy- 
man, claims the discovery as his own in 1815 ! , 

* Hort. Trans., vol. i., p. 108. See a paper on Ringing, by 
Williams. 

t Idem., p. 333. % Loudon's Encyclopaedia. 

^ So far as our experiments indicate Loudon is wrong. Cut- 



224 GARDENING. 

a]l the varieties adapt themselves rqually well to it. 
Cuttings of the pippin, of the reiiuct, of the pear- 
main, and of some other iiibes, do not succeed with 
the same facility as those of the codhn races ; and 
between these there is some difference. The vari- 
eties known by the name of the While, the Keswic, 
the Burknot, and the Carlisle, are best fitted for it, as 
they produce roots sooner and in greater abundance 
than the others. 

Whatever variety we employ, care must be taken 
in selecting the cuttings. Shoots growing on top 
branches are not so good as side shoots ; and, other 
things being equal, the nearer these can be got to 
the ground, the better they are, having in them more 
of the living principle. Another rule is to choose 
those having an obhque or horizontal direction, rath- 
er than such as grow perpendicularly. A cutting of 
eight or ten inches will be sufficiently long ; but, as 
the power of putting forth roots is found to reside 
principally in the joints^ and as these are formed of 
woods of different ages, we must remember to give 
to the cuttings a portion of both : and hence the rule, 
" to leave to one of six or eight inches of the wood 
of the present year, an inch or half an inch of that 
of the last year." 

The time for planting is that of the full flow of 
the juices, as it is then that, being most strongly 
determined downward, they will soonest form that 
callus or ring which is destined to become the ba- 
sis of the future roots. Nor is the manner of plant- 
ing them a matter of indifference. When your holes 
are ready, put into the bottom of each some hard 
substance (pieces of crockery are the best), and so 
set your plants that they shall rest on these, and 
not on the earth ;* after which, fill up what is left of 

tings cannot be depended on for propagating the apple by any 
mode which has been tried in our climate.— J. B 

* "The Orange and Ceretonia, &c., if inserted in a mere 
mass of earth, will hardly, if at all, throw out roots ; while, if 



FRUIT GARDEN. 225 

the holes, and press the ground closely about the 
plants. They must now be covered with hand- 
glasses, shaded in hot weather, and watered and 
ventilated occasionally and moderately. In August 
the glasses may be dispensed with, and in October 
the cuttings should be transplanted to the nursery. 

3. Of propagation hy Layers. — This mode was 
probably suggested by observing th ? habits peculiar 
to some trees and shrubs (as the laurel and the cur- 
rant), of pointing their branches to the earth ; where, 
finding an habitual moisture, they strike root, and 
become distinct plants. In imitating this natural 
process, the artist notches the lower side of the 
branch he employs, buries it in the earth three or 
four inches deep, and keeps it down by a wooden 
crotchet. As this is done before the descent of the 
sap, the notch operates like a dam or obstruction 
to the descending juices, and forces them into a 
bulbous form and granular substance, whence are 
emitted a mass of roots necessary to the infant 
plant. When these are sufficiently formed, that 
part of the branch which binds them to the stem is 
severed, and the layer taken up and transplanted. 

4. Of propagation by Suckers. — This mode is never 
employed but to obtain a supply of stems, on which 
to ingraft dwarfs and espaliers, and is, of course, 
confined to the Paradise and Creeper varieties. All 
that it requires is to dig up the plants, to give a por- 
tion of root to each, to shorten the stems to a fourth 
or a half of their natural length, and to set them 
out in nursery rows. 

5. Of propagation by Scions. — These are parts of 
living trees, which, when inserted in others of the 
same nature, identify themselves with them, and 
grow as if on their parent stems. The objects to 

inserted at the sides of pots, so as to touch them, they seldom 
fail of becoming rooted plants. T. A. Knight succeeded well 
with the mulberry in this way."— Encyclopaedia of Gardening, 
p. 444 



226 GARDENING. 

be obtained by this operation (which is called graft- 
ing) are four, viz., to preserve and multiply varie- 
ties of known and acknowledged merit ; to improve 
the qualities of the fruit ;* to hasten fructification 
in trees slow in bearing; and, lastly, to render bar- 
ren trees fruitful. f The general rules which guide 
in the operation are to unite varieties of the same 
nature, as apples and quinces, or apricots and plums, 
&c., &c. ; to seek a resemblance in the flow of the 
juices and the permanence of the foliage, between 
the scion and the stock ; to take the scion from lat- 
eral shoots, and from the last growth of the wood, 
and at a proper season (which is during the winter) ; 
to unite exactly the inner bark of the scion to that 
of the stock, and to do this when the sap of the lat- 
ter is in full motion. The age of the stocks is reg- 
ulated by the character they are to bear : if intend- 
ed for full standards, they should not be less than 
three years old; if for half standards, two years 
old; and if for dwarfs, one year old. The same 
rule appears to have determined the elevation at 

* Lord Bacon's opinion, that the office of the stem is merely 
passive and subservient to the scion, is received with much 
quahfication by professional horticulturists. Millar asserts that 
"crab stocks cause apples to be firmer and sharper, and to keep 
longer; and that breaking pears put on quince stocks give 
gritty fruit ; while melting pears, on stocks of the same kind, 
give fruit highly improved." Neil thinks "the qualities of the 
fruit are partially alfiscted by the character of the stock on which 
it is placed." Thouin necessarily holds the same opinion, as he 
recommends grafting on a graft as a great improvement of the 
fruit; and Loudon, in his Encyclopaidia, gives it as the settled 
opinion " of all practical men, that the nature of the fruit is in 
some degree affected by that of the stock." 

t Encyclopaedia of Gardening, p. 783 ; and M'Donald's Ex 
periments. if trees comparatively or absolutely barren be 
headed down, and receive two or more scions, the roots and 
stems, having now less to do, will nourish the grafts well, and 
soon enable them to bear fruit. But, besides this effect of in- 
creased nourishment, we must remember that grafting, like 
ringing, predisposes to the production, of fruit-buds by the ob- 
struction it gives to the descending sap.. ^ 



PRUIT GARDEN. 227 

which the scions are to be inserted ; as it is the 
general practice to graft standards at six feet from 
the ground, half standards at three feet, and dwarfs 
at six or eight inches : but both Millar and Knight 
recommend loio grafting in preference to high, " in 
all cases where the durability o^ the tree is an ob- 
ject with the cultivator ;" and our own experience, 
though comparatively small, is decidedly with them. 

6. Of propagation ly Buds. — This method is a 
modification of the former, and differs from it only 
in this, that in grafting we employ a shoot already 
matured into wood ; and in budding, a shoot in em- 
bryo. Tiie rules which govern in this case are to 
select buds from lateral shoots only, and from the 
middle of these in preference to either extremity ; 
to take them in moist or cloudy weather, or (if 4his 
condition of the atmosphere -do not exist) early in 
the morning or late in the evening, as at these times 
the perspiration of the leaves being least active, the 
buds will suffer least by the operation. If, after re- 
moving the woody part (which comes off with the 
shield), you discover a hole or opening under the 
bud, it is unfit for use, having, in technical language, 
lost its root. If, on the other hand, the bottom be 
sound, lose no time in inserting it in the stock on 
which it is destined to grow ; and in doing this, pre- 
fer the north to the south side of the stem, and 
smooth and shining bark to that which is dry and 
spotted; and be particularly careful to cover the 
edges of the shield with the bark of the stem, and 
to tie with double ligatures ; the one intended mere- 
ly to keep the bud in its place, the other, and up- 
permost, to obstruct, in some degree, the ascent of 
the sap.* 

The time for budding is from the first of July to 
the last of August ; but the true criterion in this 
respect is the condition of the bud, and of the bark 

* Encyclopaedia of Gardening. 
18 



228 GARDENING. 

adhering to it. When the first is full and verdant, 
and when the last separates readily from the stem, 
the operation cannot be ill timed. 

7, Of propagation by mixing the farinas of different 
sorts. — This mode (which, by-the-way, is only a 
qualification of the first) is of late discovery, and 
has not yet been much practised. We are, hov/ev- 
er, assured that it has already produced many new 
and excellent varieties ; and, according to Loudon, 
it consists " in cutting out the stamens of the blos- 
soms to be impregnated, and afterward, when the 
stigma is mature, introducing the pollen of the other 
parent." By this process the discoverer (Mr. Knight) 
has obtained the Doivnton. red and yzllow Ingestrie, 
Grange, Bj'indgwood, and Siberian pippins. The four 
first«fiamed of these were produced by crossing the 
orange and the golden pippin : the fifth by crossing 
the golden pippin and the golden Harvey ; and the 
sixth by crossing the Siberian crab and the pear- 
main.* The only important rule laid down for this 
method is " to select for crossing those varieties 
whose qualities most nearly resemble each other ;" 
as many observations show that where the differ- 
ence between the sorts employed is great (even in 

* This, and another seedling from the same parents, called 
the yellow Siberian, are, according to Knight's test (the specific 
gravity of the juices), the best cider apples yet known ; " the 
gravity of the one being 1079, and that of the other 1085, water 
being 1000."— Loudon's Catalogue of Apples.* 

* Subsequent, probably, to Loudon's publication, the specific 
gravity of the juice of the Dovvnton pippin was ascertained to 
be 1080. Mr. Knight also produced, in 1807-8, two new varie- 
ties, the Siberian Harvey and the Foxley Apple ; the first affording 
the heaviest juice ever known, it being 1091 : that of the latter 
was 1080. — See Knight on the Apple and Pear; also' ^ Hints," 
<SfC., by W. Salisbury. 

The celebrity of Mr. Knight's new varieties of apples induced 
me to send to England for them in 1623 ; and I have now grow- 
ing in my garden the Downton and Grange pippins, the Siberian 
Harvey, Foxley Apple, and some others not named above.— Ed 



FRUIT GARDEN. 229 

point of size), the new variety produced is not valu- 
able.* We subjoin to these remarks, and in illus- 
tration of them, an experiment of this mode, made 
by a distinguished Scotch agriculturist (M'Donald), 
as given in the Encyclopcedia of Gardening, page 
783. " In 1808 he selected some blossoms of the 
Nonpareil, which he impregnated with the pollen 
of the golden and Newton pippins. When the ap- 
ples were ripe, he selected some of the best, from 
which he took the seeds, and sowed them in pots, 
which he placed under a frame. He had eight or 
nine seedlings, which he transplanted into the open 
ground in the spring of 1809. In 1811 he picked 
out a few of the strongest plants, and put them 
singly into pots. In the spring of 1812 he observ- 
ed some of the plants showing fruit-buds. He took 
a few of the twigs and grafted them on a healthy 
stock on a wall, and in 1813 he had a few apples. 
This year his seedlings yielded several dozens, and 
also his grafts ; and he mentions that the apples on 
the grafts were the largest." 

Having indicated the varieties of the apple-tree, 
and the means of continuing these and of produ- 
cing new ones ; the selection to be made among 
them, and the points in which their management 
may differ, we proceed to what, in this respect, is 
common to them all, viz., transplanting, pruning, 
training, thinning, and, lastly, manuring, or other- 
wise altering the condition of the soil.f 

Of Transplanting. — This process is sometimes 
repeated twice or thrice before the tree is perma- 
nently placed, and, in the opinion of Knight, never 

* Mr. Kline, the anatomist, &cc., holds the same doctrine in 
relation to animals. 

t The French make a distinction, and justly, between Vamende- 
ment and Vengrais, for which we have no corresponding terms 
which sufficiently illustrate the distinction. Ploughing, harrow- 
ing, irrigating, and leaving in fallow, are among the amendemens 
(improvements) : animal and vegetable matter, under some o' 
their many modifications, constitute Vengrais (manures). 



230 GARDENING. 

to its advantage, and often to its injury. Our own 
practice is to work the stocks as soon as they have 
attained the diameter of an inch in the seedbed, 
and transplant once and permanently; believing 
that, though repeated removals may hasten the pro- 
duction of fruit, they retard the general growth and 
development of the plant, and sometimes form a 
crisis in its health from which it never recovers. 

The rules which govern in this operation are as 
follows : Take up the young trees with as little in- 
jury to the roots as possible, and replant them with- 
out any avoidable delay, in holes not less than three 
feet square,* and thirty feet apart ; give them the 
same depth and exposition they had in the nursery ; 
bring the earth and the roots into full contact, and 
water freely till the young trees give evidence of 
having taken root anew. The time for this opera- 
tion is during any mild weather in the spring, before 
the sap has got into motion; or in the autumn, after 
its circulation has ceased. f 

Of Pruning. — This branch was originally confined 
to the removal of dead, or diseased, or fractured 
wood ; but the discovery was soon made that 
branches might do mischief from their position as 
well as from their unsoundness : and hence the rule, 
" to retrench whatever intercepts the rays of light, or 
prevents a due ventilation of the tree.'" The next step 
in the art was to take off redundant branches; as 
frequent experiments proved that, by lessening the 
quantity of wood, that which was left was made 
more productive. A third discovery followed : that 

* For the advantage of this practice, see Cours d'Agriculture, 
art. Pecher. 

t Each of these seasons has its advocates; one set forbidding 
fall planting, because the high winds of the winter shake and 
fatigue the young trees ; the other spring planting, because a dry 
and warm spring will destroy them. Our own practice is to 
employ both seasons indiscriminately, and experience justifies 
this course. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 231 

Straight or perpendicular shoots gave little and bad 
fruit ; while those pushing at angles less than 45 de- 
grees,* gave fruit abundantly and of a good quality : 
and hence the rule, "/or rigorously suppressing ivater- 
shoots and gluttons, and for encouraging side-shoots 
growing horizontalhj,'''' or nearly so, in relation to the 
parent stem. An extension of the principle of this 
rule was found to be usefully applied to side-shoots 
themselves : and hence the practice " of heading 
these down, so as to give to the direction of their future 
growth new and artificial angles ;" for, by obstructing 
the flow of the sap, and compelling it to travel more 
slowly, you compel it also to throw out more blos- 
soms, and, consequently, to give more fruit. 

To these remarks we^ subjoin a few others on this 
head. 

1. Young trees, if of moderate growth, should be 
pruned early in the spring ;t if of luxuriant growth, 
later in the season. 

2. Established and bearing trees are best pruned 
in the fall; the operation, performed then, strength- 
ens the tree, and tends to the production of blossom 
buds. 

3. Superfluous and ill-placed buds may be rubbed 
off" at any time ; and no buds pushing after midsum- 
mer should be spared. 

4. The number of shoots to be retained must be 
limited by the nature of the tree, the size of the 

* Cours d' Agriculture, art. Courbure. 

t From some years' experience in summer pruning, say late 
in June and early in July, we are disposed to give it a prefer- 
ence over autumn or spring pruning. At either of the latter 
periods the tree is divested of foliage, and the wounds are ex- 
posed to the drying and corroding influence of the sun and winds ; 
and the accustomed flow of sap in the spring induqes the growth 
of a multiplicity of new sprouts. At midsummer the wounds 
are shielded by the foliage, the flow of sap is moderate, and the 
caubium, or elaborated sap, which is then most abundant, soon 
covers the lips of the wounds, and prevents disease and decay. 
— J. B. 



232 GARDENING. 

fruit, and that of the head. Trees which produce 
only on young spurs (as the apple-tree), require a 
larger provision of this sort than those which give 
fruit for several years in succession on old spurs. 

5. In choosing between the shoots to be retained, 
other things being equal, preserve those which are 
lowest placed, and, of lateral shoots, those which 
are nearest to the origin of a branch. 

6. The retained shoots should be treated accord- 
ing to the class of fruit-trees to which they belong. 
If to that which bears on distinct branches and on 
old spurs, they should be shortened as little as pos- 
sible, or not at all ; if to the class which bears on 
the last year's wood only (as the apple, apricot, pear, 
cherry, and plum), they should be shortened alter- 
nately, year and year about, so as always to furnish 
a proper supply of bearers ; and if to the anoma- 
lous class which bears on both kinds of spurs, the 
treatment should be of the mixed kind, partaking of 
the modes severally prescribed for the two other 
classes, and in proportion as the shoots may indicate 
a greater or less assimilation to either of these.* 

7. Shorten strong shoots one fourth, and feeble 
ones one half. 

Of Training. — Many observations led to the be- 
lief that, though the apple tree, when left to its nat- 
ural form and bulk, possessed its greatest vigour 
and productiveness, and was in the condition fittest 
for large and permanent orchards, still that in other 
forms, and on feebler stems, and under a treatment 
in all respects more artificial, it may be made to 
give fruit of an earlier sort, of a larger size, and of 
better appearance. Of this important discover)^ 

* Some gardeners are in the practice of heading down old and 
much decayed apple-trees within a few inches of the ground. 
Forsyth was the first to recommend this practice, on the credit 
of many experiments made by himself, which prove that trees 
so managed may be restored to vigour and fruitfulness. — See hisj 
work on Fruit 'I'rees, 



FRUIT GARDEN. 233 

horticulturists were not slow in availipg them- 
selves, and, as in many similar cases, even abused 
it; for hence came the whole family of dwarfs and 
monsters, so fashionable in the days of La Quinteuy 
and D'Andilly, and of which some specimens may yet 
be found in different parts of Europe. However![as 
experiments multiplied, and science and good taste 
increased, a medium size, and forms less foreign 
from vegetable nature than those of the hon and the 
stag, tlie distaff and the urn, were brought into use, 
and established as most proper for garden culture. 

In forming these (to which have been given the 
names of the half standard, the pyramid, and the 
espalier), the labour necessarily begins in the nur- 
sery. The stock of the crab, the paradise, or the 
quince, is grafted two, three, or four inches from 
the earth, with the variety you wish to propagate. 
In the spring of the second year after grafting, one 
of two methods is employed to form the head ; ei- 
ther by shortening the shoots which may have 
pashed from the graft, or the graft itself to the third 
or fourth eye from its root. In either case, a growth 
of more vigorous shoots succeeds, from which you 
select your m.ain or leading branches; always taking 
care to reject those which are spongy and over- 
grown, or feeble and wiry. 

The future management of the tree will necessa- 
rily be regulated by its destination. If intended for 
a standard, your labour will be principally confined 
to the removal of dead or dying, and redundant 
wood; and "to the thinning and shortening the ex- 
terior parts of the branches, so that the light may 
everywhere penetrate into the head, without any- 
where passing through it."* If, on the other hand,, 
you mean that your tree shall be a 'pyramid, the or- 
dinary mode of giving this form consists in making 
the oldest and lowest branches the longest, and in 

♦ Encyclopaedia of Gardening. 



234 GARDENING. 

shortening the upper and younger growths gradual- 
ly to the top. But against this practice we are ad- 
monished by a British writer of considerable au- 
thority,* who says that, " when appHed to apple, or 
pear, or other trees which produce their fruits at the 
extremities of the last years wood, the conical form 
is both absurd and ruinous ; since, to produce or pre- 
serve it, we must necessarily destroy a large pro- 
portion of fruit-buds." The terms of this position 
are, however, too broad ; for, though the objection 
be good against the old or ordinary method of pro- 
ducing this shape, it fails altogether against the shape 
itself, provided any mode of producing it be found 
which shall leave the fruit-buds untouched ; and that 
such mode does exist, we learn from another writer 
of the same nation, and of equal, if not higher au- 
thority.! " If," he says, " the graft you employ be 
inserted with its point (or terminal) bud perfect, the 
branches will range themselves horizontally and in 
series, and, without violence, produce all the effects 
(as to shape) which have hitherto been produced by 
pruning and training." The espalier form, if that be 
desired, is produced by selecting two healthy shoots 
the second year after grafting, which, when spread 
out, like the ribs of a fan, against an open frame, 
and filled up within by lateral shoots, present two 
surfaces, the one in front and the other in rear, for 
the production of fruit. The knife in this case is 
only used in keeping these surfaces clear of dead, 
or unhealthy, or fractured wood, and in removing all 
shoots other than those growing laterally. 
With these several forms may be associated the 

* Nicol. 

t Hayward's Principles of Gardening. An additional author- 
ity in favour of the pyramidal form is the practice of those em- 
inent botanists, Thouin and Bosc, in the national gardens at 
Paris (the Jardin des Plantes and the Luxembourg). It is, be- 
sides, the form generally adopted, if we mistake not, in the 
schools of botany. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 235 

artificial shelter of walls ; which, from many experi- 
ments made in the most crowded parts of our cities, 
are beUeved to be useful in maturing fruits of many- 
kinds, and especially to such as are of southern ori- 
gin and delicate constitution, as the peach, the nec- 
tarine, the fig, &c. The rules whicli apply to this 
branch of the art are few and simple, and will be re- 
served for a future subject (the peach-tree), as one 
to which they better apply than to the apple-tree. 

Of Thinning* — In using this term, we confine 
ourselves to the removal of superfluous leaves and 
fruit ; an operation which, though proper and use- 
ful, must be cautiously performed ; as, in the vege- 
table economy, the office to which the leaf is des- 
tined is very important : being the supply of the 
pLuit with that portion of its subsistence derived 
from the atmosphere. We know of no purpose, 
therefore, that will justify us in stripping off any 
considerable part of the foliage, unless it be that of 
maturing fruit and wood, which, from constitutional 
defects or a faulty situation, would not otherwise 
ripen. Peaches, pears, grapes, and some varieties 
of apples, occasionally come within this description ; 
and though the process may not be equally indispen- 
sable to them all, yet all are undoubtedly improved 
by it. The rule which governs in this case is, " to 
remove such leaves as shade the fruit, so soon as 
this has attained its full size, and begins to lose its 
green colour." To do it earlier would impair the 
growth of the fruit ; and to do it rigorously and at 
once, would arrest that of the retained shoots : 
whence it follows that " the thinning must be grad- 
ual, and at two or more different times during the 
space of five or six days."t If the leaves of wall- 
trees hang longer than usual, they should be brushed 
off, the better to ventilate and ripen the young wood ; 

* Encyclopedia of Gardening. 

t Not applicable, or, if appli«='able, seldom or ever practised on 
the farm.— J. B. 



236 GARDENING. 

but, in doing this, we must be careful to brush up- 
ward and outward, and never in the opposite direc- 
tions, as in that case we could not fail to injure the 
retained buds. 

Thinning the fruit is also an important operation ; 
since, if properly managed, it has the direct effect 
of improving both the size and the quality of what 
is left', while, ai the same time, it betters the condi- 
tion of ihe tree, and adds greatly to its longevity. 
Few persons have been such negligent observers as 
not to have remarked the proneness in apricot, nec- 
tarine, peach, and plum trees, to set more fruit than 
they are able to ripen. It is true that this exces- 
sive bearing will in some degree cure itself, but al- 
ways at the expense of the tree and of the fruit it 
actually ripens ; whence the economy of anticipa- 
ting nature, and relieving her from the labour of 
sustaining a useless and abortive progeny. Bu^, 
as in the case of superfluous leaves, this thinning 
should be performed cautiously and at different 
times. " If the fruit be thickly set ever particular 
parts of the tree only, begin by taking off one half 
from such parts ; and if every part of the tree be 
crowded, take off the same proportion from the 
whole." Revise it again in June, and finally in Ju- 
ly ; taking off, at each of these revisions, such as 
may be usefully spared. On healthy and full-bear- 
ing trees, one apple of large size to every square 
foot of the superficial contents of the tree, is con- 
sidered a just proportion ; that is, a space of fifteen 
feet by twelve may be allowed to ripen two hundred 
apples ; and if the fruit be small, this proportion may 
be increased a third part.* " Many persons," says 
Nicol, " may think that thinning to this extent will 
be excessive ; but I wish such to be convinced of 
the propriety of doing so by comparison. If they 
have two trees of a kind, healthy and well-loaded, 

* Encyclopsedia of Gardening. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 237 

thin the one as directed, and leave the other to it- 
self. It will be found that the tree which has been 
thinned will produce an equal or greater weight of 
fruit, and this incomparably more beautiful ajid high- 
er in flavour. The operation should be over by the 
time the fruit is half grown ; for, if delayed till they 
are nearly full grown, and beginning to swell off for 
ripening, the mischief will be already done, both to 
the tree and to the fruit which is reiained." 

Of Manuring, and otherwise altering the condition 
of the soil. — We have said that apple-trees grow 
well in a great variety of soils ; but it by no means 
follows that they affect all soils alike. A substan- 
tial loam, whose substratum is dry, is that in which 
they thrive best ; and a circumstance which is not 
discouraging to the agriculturist is, that, should he 
not find such ready made to his hand, he can him- 
self make it without much expense of time or 
money. Its elements are cheap and abundant, 
being sand, clay, and vegetable or animal matter in 
a state of decomposition. Equal proportions of the 
first and second of these, and a smaller quantity of 
the third, will give a soil of great power and dura- 
bility, requiring only occasional supplies of mould 
to reinstate what of that may be taken from the 
mass by successive croppings. This mould is it- 
self created by a mixture of various substances, as 
dung, ashes, leaves, weeds, lime, marl, &c., fre- 
quently turned and thoroughly rotted, and to which, 
in this condition, has been given the technical name 
of com.post. A biennial dressing of tfiis, applied to 
the whole surface, with an annual and careful cul- 
ture of some esculent plant between the trees, will 
bestow on the latter all the advantages that, in our 
climate, can be given by labouring and manuring 
the earth. 

Apple, like other fruit trees, have their enemies 
and their diseases. All excesses of heat or cold, 
wetness or dryness, are unfriendly to them; some- 



238 GARDENING. 

times wholly destroying their fertility for the sea- 
son, at others seriously injuring it, and occasional- 
ly, though rarely, disorganizing the trees them- 
selves. • Many insects also prey upon them, attack- 
ing their leaves, blossoms, fruit, bark, or roots ; of 
which the J\phis \a3n1gera,* the curculio, the scara- 
beus, &c., arc the most common and injurious ; 
nor, 'dnfortunrltel\^ do we know any specific remedy 
against these evils. f Bur, after all, may not our 
own negligence be considered as lUe iiiost fruitful 
source of many others of a simihu* kind] How 
often do we find me bark of fruit-trees covered and 
coloured with parasiies, in the form of mosses, and 
lichens, and smui, wliich a small degree of labour 
and a little whitewash would entirely and promptly 
remove. I How patiently do we look on and see 
the ravages made on their leaves and fruit-buds by 
caterpillars of different names and appearances, 
when, if we visited them at daybreak, all would be 
found at home and asleep, and entirely within our 
reach 1 And, lastly, how various and fatal are the 
wounds inflicted on stems and branches (under the 
name and pretence of pruning) when left open, as 
they generally are, to the alternate action of air, 
and frost, and sunshine, without giving them even 
the cheap and simple covering of St. Fiacre 1^ 

* The Eriosoma mall of Leach. This insect forms the excres- 
cences called galls on the stems and branches of trees. " W. 
Salisbury gives an engraving of it, as it appeared through a mag- 
nifying glass, eating its way into the roots of a tree ; and another 
of the same insect m the bug state, which he believed to be the 
male." — Loudon, p. 788. 

f Watering, fumigation, &c., are the remedies usually pre- 
scribed ; but, in our opinion. " a judicious management of the 
sub and surface soil, culture and pruning, are the things luost 
to be relied upon." — Idem, 

X The best wash for the apple-tree is a strong ley, to be ap 
plied to the trunk and larger branches with a brush, early in 
June. It destroys both parasitic plants and insects. — .1. B. 

{) A mixture of cow-dung and clay is called in France (tl^t 
land of saints'! *' the ointment of St. Fiacre ;" and is, in the 



FRUIT GARDEKf. 239 

The Pear-tree {Pyrus communis) was not un- 
known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and 
grows spontaneously in the forests of Europe as 
high as the 51st degree of north latitude. It differs 
from the apple-tree in its greater tendency to a py- 
ramidal form, in its being more slow in arriving at 
a bearing or productive state,* and, lastly, in its 
living to a much greater age.f 

The hardiness of the tree and the excellence of 
its fruit have recommended it to general cultiva- 
tion, as might be inferred from the very great num- 
ber of its varieties. These, which in the time of 
Pliny amounted to thirty, have since increased to 
three hundred ; and, if Van Mons is to be credited, 
to even double that number. From this long mus- 
ter-roll of names we shall select a few, in their nat- 
ural order of ripening, which stand highest in pub- 
lic estimation for dessert and culinary uses, and 
which may be made to supply our tables from 
July to March : The Green Chissel, the Red Musca- 
dine, the Avorat or Muscat Robine, the Royale d^Ete^ 
the Green Yair, the Beurre Rouge, the Messieur Jean, 
the Crassan, the Colmar, the Vergoleuse, the Wondei 
of Winter, the Poire d''Auch, the Brown Beurre, the 
Muscat VAllemande, the Winter St. Germain, and the 
Bon Chretien.^) 

As these varieties do not reproduce themselves 
from the seed ; as the plants furnished by layers, 

opinion ©f the best horticulturists of that country, a more effi 
cient coveiing for the wounds of trees than the complicated and 
much-vaunted mixture of Forsyth. 

* Generally from 15 to 18 years. — Cours d'Agriculture, art. 
Poirier. 

t Knight asserts, that the variety called in England the Bar- 
land has existed from the beginning of the 17th century, and 
conjectures that the Tanuton Squash (an older variety) was first 
known in the 6egmning of the 16th. 

X Du Hamei divides the varieties known in his day into two 
classes, and considers them all as proceeding from the fecunda- 
tion of the wild pear by the quince. 

^ See our note on orchards, p. 0(^. — J. B. 



240 GARDENING. 

cuttings, and suckers are very indifferent ; and as 
seedlings are slow in giving their fruit, it follows 
that the pear is principally propagated by scions 
and buds. These are placed on quince or pear 
stocks, according as taste or interest may invite to 
early and small crops of fine quality, or to later 
and more abundant ones of inferior character. In 
the former case, the stem of the quince must be 
employed, and in the latter that of the common 
pear, and without any material difference in the 
operation, excepting that " the feebler the stem, the 
nearer to the earth should be placed the scion or 
the bud." 

Notwithstanding the hardiness ascribed to the 
pear-tree, we know not any of the kernel class more 
readily or sensibly affected by particular conditions 
of the atmosphere. A moist and cold spring, a wet 
summer, and a rainy autumn, are alike unpropi- 
tious to it. In either of these cases, the fruit which 
does not rot is watery and tasteless, and when all 
take place, the evil extends to even a second year ; 
as, according to the observations of Coursette, 
" long-continued moisture rarely fails to convert 
fruit-buds into wood-buds." 

The second year after budding or grafting, the 
plants may be removed to the places where it is in- 
tended they shall stand ; and as the manner and 
time of doing this do not diifer from those already 
prescribed for the apple-tree, we may spare our- 
selves and our readers the trouble of a repetition 
of our directions on those heads. 

With respect to expositioa and soil, though the 
pear-tree may be made to grow anywhere, still it 
will succeed badly on the north side of hills or in 
stiff dry soils, and still worse on those which rest 
on a wet subsoil. Some of its later and finer vari- 
eties require and deserve a deep substantial loam, 
occasionally refreshed with a dressing of well-rot- 
ted duiTg, and some of the best aspects the garde?. 
can furnish. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 241 

Cultivated as standards and pyramids, the young 
trees should be left in a great degree to regulate 
their own shape ;* and if interference become prop- 
er at all, it should be conducted under two rules, 
" to keep the middle of the head pretty open, and 
the sides well balanced. ■"! Trees of other forms, 
and intended for walls and espaliers, require more 
labour and management, and a degree of both sum- 
mer and winter pruning ; the former of which con- 
sists in rubbing off all fore-right, ill-placed, super- 
fluous, or spongy shoots, before they become so 
hard as to render the use of the knife necessary ; 
while the latter (performed during any temperate 
weather between November and April) is conduct- 
ed on the general rule " of sparing all such well- 
placed and thriving laterals as maybe necessary for 
preserving the form given to the head of the tree, 
and of cutting away all others close to the branch 
from which they grow." If the older wood be dis- 
eased or redundant, cut this away also, or short- 
en it down to some healthy and promising shoots. 
The retained branches, if growing against a wall or 
trellis, should, after each pruning, be laid down and 
nailed, with as much extension as can conveniently 
be given to them. 

Mr. Knight's mode of training the pear-tree is to 
leave on the young stock two lateral branches on 
each side. When about six feet high, he transplants 
the tree early in the spring, and inserts grafts on 
each of the laterals, " so that two of them shall 
push from the stem about four feet from the ground, 
and two others from the summit, the ensuing year. 

* Knight remarks that, in general, very little pruning is re- 
quired for pear standards or pyramids ; but that there are sorts 
which form heads resembling those of apple-trees, and that for 
these pruning may be beneficial. 

f To produce a well-balanced tree, shorten the wood of the 
deficient side, and leave the other to itself. For the reason ot 
Jhis rule, see a note on the art. Apple-tree. 



242 GARDENING. 

The shoots produced by these grafts, when about 
a foot long, are to be trained downward, the lower 
ones almost perpendicularly, and the upper ones 
just below a horizontal line, and so placed as to 
distance that the leaves of the one will not at all 
shade the other. Continue this mode of training 
the second year, and in the third you may expect 
an abundant crop of fruit."* 

When an old tree becomes unproductive, one of 
•wo methods should be adopted : either to cut it 
down within eighteen inches or two feet from the 
ground, and train up anew some selected shoots 
which may have pushed from the stump (which is 
the method of Forsyth), or "to take off at its base 
every branch which does not want at least twenty 
degrees of being perpendicular, and all spurs from 
such other branches as, by this rule, will be left. 
Into these (the retained branches), at their subdivis- 
ions, and at different distances from their bases 
quite to their extremities, grafts must be carefully 
inserted, which, when they attain sufficient length 
(say twelve inches), must be trained downward be- 
tween the branches, as directed in the preceding 

paragraph."! 

The enemies and diseases of the pear-tree being 
those of the apple-tree, we refer the reader to what 
has been said in relation to them in the preceding 
article. 

The Quince {Pyrus cydonia) is a native of the 
southern and eastern parts of Europe, where it is 
much cultivated for its fruit, which, though not eat- 
able in a raw state, is readily converted into a mar- 

* We have varied Mr. Knight's phraseology a little, having 
«ubstituted the form oi 2i precept for what he has given in that of 
an experiment. 

t Forsyth's objection to the practice of cutting oiFold spurs, 
viz., "that it brings on the canker, and renders the fruit small 
and spotted," would admonish us against the employment of 
this method, had it not been adopted and recommended by Mr 
Knight. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 243 

malade, and an excellent dry paste, to which is giv 
en the name of calignac. The stem is also employ- 
ed for the reception of apple and pear grafts, and 
has the property of giving to the fruit it bears great- 
er precocity, an increased size, and an improved 
flavour , but with this drawback, that " the quantity 
is small, and the product short-lived, as the age of 
the tree seldom exceeds ten or twelve years." 

The varieties of the quince are four : the pear 
quince, the apple quince, the mild, and the Portuguese ; 
of which the last should in all cases be preferred, 
being hardier, handsomer, and a better bearer than 
the other sorts, and, what we consider as no small 
additional recommendation, being also more tena- 
cious of its fruit, which rarely falls from mere ri 
pening. 

Like the other varieties, this is propagated by 
seeds, layers, suckers, and cuttings. The first give 
the finest plants ; but the process is so slow as of- 
ten to exhaust our patience, and thus raise against 
it formidable objections. Still, as some may wish 
to make the experiment for themselves, it may not 
be improper to remark, that, when seeds are em- 
ployed, they should be fresh and plump, and sown 
in a bed of light and moist soil, having a southern 
aspect. After vegetating in the spring, the plants 
should be thoroughly hoed, and the ground about 
them kept clear of wee-ds till the second year, when 
they may be removed to the nursery, where, with 
the care ordinarily given to this department of the 
garden, they w^ill do well, until transplanted to the 
places where they are permanently to stand. 

Layers from the quince do not always succeed, 
and hence it is that they are seldom employed ; but 
his is not the case with cuttings, which, placed in 
a soil and situation proper for them (moist and sha- 
ded), rarely, if ever, fail. Taken in the spring, they 
are set out in the nursery at the distance of fifteen 
or eighteen inches apart; and, if intended for pear 
19 



244 GARDENING. 

or appie stocks, are grafted early the ensuing yeai. 
In this case the ceil dormant, within a few inches 
of the earth, is the species of graft ordinarily em* 
ployed. But it is not to be forgotten that, from 
causes not obvious in the present state of our knowl- 
edge, some of the varieties of the pear submit qui- 
etly to this operation, and even thrive under it, while 
others will not survive it. Of the former descrip- 
tion are the Vergoleuse and the Beurre ; and of the 
latter, the Bon Chretien, Bergamot of England, Sal- 
viati, the pound pear, and the Quenois.* The rea- 
son assigned by naturalists is the difference of 
strength between the stem and the graft, or, in 
other words, the feebleness of the quince stock. 
But what has a tendency, at least, to lessen our 
confidence in this theory is, that the Vergoleuse 
and the Beurre are both placed among the hardy 
varieties, and yet do well on stems of this kind. 

In propagating for stocks, remove the lower 
shoots, and preserve the stem clean as high as the 
graft. When the fruit of the quince is the object 
of culture, train the stem to a rod or stake until it 
reach the height of four or five feet, or, in other 
words, till it be able to support itself. The time of 
planting, mode of bearing, and general culture, are 
those already described for apples and pears. 

The Almond-tree {Amygdalus). — Of the six or 
seven species of this tree known to botanists, there 
is but one that would at all repay the expense and 
trouble of cultivation here, and this is the Amyg- 
dalus communis, or common almond. f Its varie- 
ties, which amount to six or eight, are distinguish- 
ed by some quality of the shell or of the fruit, as 
the hard and the soft, the bitter and the sweet ; or 
by names arbitrarily given, as the peach,| the pis- 

* Cours d'Agriculture. 

+ All the different species are natives of Asia and Africa. 

} This variety is supposed by Knight to be the Tuberes of 
Pliny, produced by dusting the stigma of the almond with the 
pollen of the peach.— Hort. Trans., vol, iii., p. 4. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 245 

tachio, the cornichon, and the sultana. Of these, 
the last and the sweet alnmond of Du Hamel and 
Forsyth are the sorts most esteemed. 

Like the apple, &c., the almond-tree is propaga- 
ted by seeds when new varieties are sought for, and 
by buds when old ones are to be continued. Graft- 
ing is rarely practised, and never with good effect, 
from the loss of gum inseparable from the wound 
it inflicts. Whence it follows that, in moist soils, 
the plum stock, and in dry soils, that of the peach 
or of the bitter almond, are employed as stocks. 

The best time for sowing is in the spring ; and 
the seeds selected should be those which have been 
taken from ripe fruit, and carefully buried in some 
dry and cool place, to prevent evaporation. When 
put out in the nursery they should be placed with 
the sharp ends downward, in rows two and a half 
feet apart, and kept free from weeds. As soon as 
the young plants show themselves, cover them du- 
ring the hot weather with straw, and, when four or 
five feet 1iigh, inoculate ; when they are three 
years old, transplant them into the fruit garden or 
the shrubbery, as you may think best. In either 
place, annually labouring the earth around the roots 
will be useful. 

The cultivation of this tree, under circumstances 
favourable to it, is very profitable ;* but it must not 
be dissembled, that in our climate, whether northern 
or southern, it does not succeed. In the former, 
the early production of its blossoms (which always 
precede the leaves)f greatly expose it to frosts, the 
slightest of which are sufficient to destroy it ; and 
in the latter, from causes not sufficiently explored, 
" the fruit falls," as we are informed by Bosc, " be- 

* '• The profits of this culture in the south of France are not 
so great, but more certain than those arising from the culture 
of the olive."— Bosc. 

t There is but one exception to this, the sultana, a sub-vari- 
ety of the tender shell. 



246 GARDENING. 

fore it ripens." With us, therefore, the manage- 
ment of the tree, both with regard to soil and expo- 
sition, must differ from that ordinarily prescribed ; 
and, instead of giving to it a dry and warm sand, a 
southern aspect, and a wall to reflect the heat, we 
must be careful to employ means which shall have 
the effect of retarding vegetation. These are, bud- 
ding on the plum instead of either the peach or the 
almond stock ; avoiding a southern aspect ; planting 
in a soil poor and moist, and always in the open 
air, and without the shelter of walls, fences, or hills ; 
exposing the roots to the action of the frost during 
winter; covering them with a thick coat of straw 
during the hot days of the spring ; and, lastly, an- 
nular excisions made in the bark. 

The Apricot {Prunus). — The origin of this tree 
has been somewhat contested. On the supposition 
that it was a native of Armenia, the botanists have 
called it the Prunus Armeniaca. Pallas, however, 
claims it for the region of the Caucasus ; Grossie'r 
for the barren mountains west of Pekin ; Thunberg 
for Japan ; and Regnier for the banks of the Niger; 
while Olivier finds it growing spontaneously, with- 
out care or culture, in Asia Minor and in Persia. 
The date of its introduction into Europe is not bet- 
ter ascertained than its origin ; but the presumption 
is that this was very remote, as the tree was known 
in Italy in the time of Dioscorides, and was culti- 
vated in France (as we learn from Thouin) when 
that country was a Roman province. 

As in the case of other fruit-trees long subjected 
to cultivation, its varieties are numerous ; and many 
of them so imperfectly distinguished from each 
other, that their imputed differences sometimes es- 
cape the observation of even practised horticultu- 
rists. The varieties best ascertaine'd and most es- 
teemed, are, 

1. The early, principally recommended by its pre- 
cocity, and by the circumstance that the stones 



FRUIT GARDEN. 247 

never fail to give fruit resembling in all respects 
that of the parent tree. 

2. The Angumois, distinguished by the oblong 
form of its fruit ; by a flesh rich, juicy, and slightly 
acid ; and by the abundance of its aroma. This 
tree attains to great perfection in the southern parts 
of Europe, thrives best in a calcareous soil, and in 
an open and thoroughly ventilated situation; bears 
badly the neighbourhood of walls, and entirely re- 
fuses the discipline of the espalier. 

3. The common^ recommended alike by its vigor- 
ous growth, its hardness, and productiveness. The 
fruit is, howeuer, less rich and less aromatic than 
that of other varieties. 

4. The Dutch. — The stem of this, if left to itself, 
is apt to be feeble or diseased ; and hence it is that 
we generally find this variety grafted on plum 
stocks. Its fruit, like that of the Angumois, is 
nealy spherical, juicy, and high flavoured, and (when 
the tree has a good exposition, and is otherwise 
well managed) attains to a considerable size. 

5. The Portuguese. — The fruit of this sort is small 
and round, but abounding in juices, and very high 
flavoured. 

G. The Alexandrian gives a fruit particularly adapt- 
ed to confitures and marmalades ; as its own sugar 
is nearly sufficient for its preservation. The objec- 
tion to the tree is its precocity and tendernesss, as 
it blossoms early, and blights under the smallest de- 
gree of frost. 

7. The Breda is an excellent variety, does well in 
England, and would probably do better here. The 
fruit is large and round, of a deep yellow colour, 
with a pulp soft and juicy. The tree is a great 
bearer, especially in the standard form, to which it 
seems to be particularly adapted. 

8. The Brussels gives a fruit of meduim size, in- 
clining to an oval form, the flavour fine, and the pulp 
not liable to dryness or toughness. The tree is a 



248 GARDENING. 

great bearer, and, like the apricot of Breda, is well 
adapted to the standard form. 

9. The Moor Park or Peach, rarely, if ever, met 
with in this country ; a fact the more extraordinary, 
as many circumstances conspire to give it a decided 
preference over all the other varieties. The tree 
is large, vigorous, and hardy, and is propagated like 
the kind first named, from the stone, without risk 
or trouble of grafting or budding; it does well either 
as a standard or espalier, and gives fruit in great 
abundance and of an excellent quality.* 

The apricot is multiplied in various ways, but 
principally by seeds and budding. If we employ 
the former of these methods, not a moment should 
be lost after the fall of the fruit in placing the 
stones in the earth ; nor should we omit for a single 
day to water them after they are planted. With- 
out an observance of these rules, the pits or seeds 
shrivel or become rancid ; and in either case, the 
power of germination (which in the apricot is nat- 
urally feeble) is always impaired and often destroy- 
ed. Sow also in the lines and at the distances at 
which the trees are permanently to stand, whether 
as wall fruit or standards ; for, by so doing, the 
plants will have more and stouter roots, be better 
assured against high winds (which always fatigue 
and often destroy them), give their fruit sooner, and 
escape the many hazards of transplantation. f 

We have just suggested that the stone of the 
apricot is slow in giving signs of life ; and we may 
add that, when it does give them, it requires several 
years to render the plant strong, healthy, and pro- 
ductive. This last is probably the circumstance 
that has decided nursery-men in favour of the other 
(or budding) method of propagation, as by this they 

* Catalogue-makers unite in giving this variety the prefer- 
ence. — See Loudon, &c., &c. 

t JVIanage this as we may, still there is a hazard in it, and 
particularly so with regard to the apricot. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 249 

obtain fruit in half the time necessary in .,he pre- 
ceding process. Ahiiond or plum stocks are gen- 
erally employed for stems ; and of the latter, those 
of the two varieties called the Cerisette and St. Ju- 
lian are the most approved. Knight, however, pre- 
fers budding the Moor Park on the common apri- 
cot ; and gives as a reason for doing so, that, " thus 
managed, he finds the trees do not become debili- 
tated or diseased as when budded on plum stocks.* 

In selecting plants from the nursery, take those 
of three years in preference to such as are either 
older or younger ; and those having a single stem 
to such as have two branches. On this last point 
Forsyth goes so far as to recommend lopping off 
one branch where the tree may happen to have 
two : " as," he adds, " if both be retained, the mid- 
dle space between them will be naked." 

Apricots are often trained against walls (for the 
general/eason of sooner and better maturing the 
fruit) ; and, when so managed, will no doubt bear 
much earlier than in the standard form. But to this 
process there is a serious objection, arising from 
the frequent and severe pruning which it renders 
necessary, and the ill effects of this on the health 
and longevity of the tree. On the other hand, if set 
out and managed as standards, though much of this 
injurious discipline will be avoided, and though in 
the result we shall have abundant fruit and of fine 
flavour, still we are compelled to wait long for it, 
generally eight, and sometimes ten years. Influen- 
ced by these considerations, the well-instructed hor- 
ticulturist takes a middle course ; plants his apri- 
cots in a border ; leaves them, in a great degree, to 
regulate themselves as to shape ; uses the knife 
only to get rid of dead or diseased wood ; rubs off 
the fore-right and superfluous buds while in a her- 
baceous state, and trains the retained shoots to a 

*• Hort. Trans., vol. ii., p. 19. 



250 GARDENING. 

trellis, so placed as almost to touch the south side 
of the wall. By these means he secures the advan- 
tages of both methods, and, at the same time, either 
entirely avoids or so qualifies their defects, as to 
render them of little importance. 

The fruit is often attacked by flies and wasps, and 
is best protected against these by nettings. Insects 
do not appear to do much injury to the tree itself, 
probably owing to the roughness of its bark and the 
coriaceous nature of its leaves. 

The Cherry-tree {Cerasus). — This, like most of 
our other fruit-trees, is a native of Asia, and was 
jfirst brought to Italy from the town of Oerasunt* 
by the Roman general Lucullus. Its cultivated va- 
rieties are about forty in number,| and are divided 
by the French botanists into three races, to which 
they have given the names of the bigarrotier, the 
griottier, and the guignier. The fruit of the first is 
distinguished by its hard and fleshlike substance ; 
that of the second by its juiciness and tenderness ; 
and that of the last by its comparative sweetness. 
Subjoined is a list of such of the varieties (placed 
in their natural order of ripening) as may be most 
worthy of attention: The May Duke, the Early 
Black (a cross made by Knight between the Graf- 
fian and the May Duke),| Ronald's Large Black 
Heart, Frazier's Tartarian, the Elton (another new 
variety produced by crossing the Graffian and the 
White Heart), the Bleeding Heart, Harrison'' s Heart,- 
the Cerone, the Black Gean, the Florence, the Amber 
Heart, and the Morello. 

The cherry-tree is propagated both by needs and 

Hence the generic name of Cerasus. 

t The Luxembourg Catalogue contains forty-two. 

t Hort. Trans., vol. iii., p. 212. " The cherry sports more ex- 
tensively in variety when propagated from seeds, than any other 
fruit that I have subjected to the experiment, and probably is 
therefore capalile of attainint,' to a higher degree of perfection 
than it has yet reach3d."--Kn)gh* "*'"■ 'iVans., vol. li., p. 13S 



FRUIT GARDEN. 251 

suckers when stems are wanted ; by seeds alone 
when new varieties are required;* by scions when 
you have to work on old subjects ; and by buds 
when your trees are young. If intende^d for dwarfs, 
bud your plants at two, and if for standards, a.t four 
years of age. The spring succeeding this operation 
is the time for transplanting, which should be done 
carefully, and in the manner prescribed for setting 
out apple-trees. The fashion or form of the trees 
will direct the distance at which they are to stand 
from each other : between standards this should not 
be less than thirty feet ;f and between pyramids and 
espaliers not less than twenty. 

Though in our climate all the varieties of the 
cherry-tree do well as standards and pyramids, and 
are, therefore, generally and properly cultivated in 
these forms, still it may be useful to remark that 
two of them, the May Duke and the Morello, when 
trained against walls, give fruit not only of greater 
precocity, but of much finer flavour ; a circum- 
stance in which they differ, not only from other va- 
rieties of their own races, but from fruit-trees of all 
other kinds. J 

As the cherry grows on small spurs, pushing from 
the sides and ends of two, three, and four year old 
wood, and as the procession of new buds is con- 
stant, it follows, as a general rule, that "the knife 
must be sparingly employed ;" and as a particular 
one in Relation to wall-trees, that "bearing branches 
are not to be shortened if room can be found for 
extending them."§ These rules, however rigorous- 
ly executed, must not prevent .yi^mmer pruning (which, 

* The seeds employed should be taken from ripe fruit, com 
mitted promptly to a bed of sand, and kept in a dry and cool 
place till the spring, when they may be set out in rows two and 
a half feet apart. 

t Millar thinks the distance should be forty feet. 

t Nicol. 

(} Abercrombie's Art of Pruning. 
20 



252 GARDENING. 

as already stated, consists in rubbing off redundant 
or ill-placed buds), nor that of winter^ if confined to 
the removal of fractured or unsound wood, or 
branches too much multiplied or crossing each oth- 
er.* The nature of the Morello will, however, ren- 
der it an exception to the general rule here recom- 
mended ; for, instead of bearing, like other varie- 
ties, on two, three, and even four year old wood, its 
fruit is generally produced on shoots of the last 
year, and rarely, if ever, on even two year old wood. 
Whence it follows that, with regard to this variety, 
our aim in both summer and winter pruning ought 
to be " a removal of old and a provision of new 
bearers." 

In renovating an old tree pursue Forsyth's meth- 
od ; shorten it to a stump not more than 18 inches 
high ; remove the old soil from the roots ; replace it 
with that of upland pasture, on a layer of stone or 
some other impervious body, two feet below the 
surface, and encourage a single shoot. 

Cherry-trees in general are not much affected 
by insects. Of this class the red spider is their 
greatest enemy in England ; and in Scotland an in- 
sect called the black beetle, which Naismith found 
the means of killing " by burning under the trees a 
mixture of pitch, orpiment, and sulphur, and then 
giving them a good washing with the garden en- 
gine." Birds are here a more potent enemy ; and 
the best remedy against them are old fishnets 
thrown over the trees, clapboards, scarecro'w^s, and 
fusees. 

The Peach-tree {Amygdalus Persica) is a native 
of Asia, and was first brought to Rome during the 
reign of the Emperor Claudius. f A circumstance 
worth remarking in even our short notice of its his- 



* Caledonian Memoirs, vol. i, p. 427. 

t Mentioned by Columella (in his work on Gardens), and also 
y Pliny. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 253 

tory is, that the 4)roduct of the species or variety 
then irUroduced was believed to be poisonous, and 
gave to the tree a very bad reputation, which yield- 
ed, however, to experiments more carefully made, 
and to the acknowledged fact that in Egypt, where 
also it had become an object of culture, the fruit 
was equally wholesome and delicious.* 

The early botanists divided this family into two 
classes : the one giving a fruit with a downy skin, 
which they called a peach ; the other a fruit with a 
smooth skin, to which they gave the name of nec- 
tarine. But as it was soon ascertained that the same 
tree did occasionally produce both sorts at the same 
time,t later writers have rejected the distinction, and 
considering them as the same fruit, have arranged 
them simply into the downy and the smooth with 
a free-stone, and the downy and the smooth with 
a cling-stone. 

The sub-varieties of both classes are numerous ; 
and, as they afford much choice, the selection be- 
tween them ought to be made with care, and under 
two leading views : 1st, to secure a succession of 
fruit throughout the season ; and, 2d, to do this by 
employing the sorts which will best adapt them- 
selves to the climate. In making up the following 
list, we have, therefore, taken only those sub-varie- 
ties which, under different modes of cultivation, have 
succeeded in latitudes even higher than our own. 
1st, the Early Purple (Pourpre hative of Du Ha- 
mel) ; 2d, Grosse Mignone ; 3d, Belle Chevreuse ; 4th, 
Royal Chariot ; 5th, Double Mountain ; 6th, Bellegarde 

* Knight conjectures, and with great probabihty, that this 
first importation to Rome was the Swollen Almond, which is 
known to contain much prussic acid. OUvier brought the Wild 
Peach of Persia to Paris ; where, on cultivation, it gave fruit 
much resembling the Avant Peche Blanche, or what the English 
call the White Nutmeg. 

t See Salisbury's short account of nectarines and peaches 
produced on the same branch, in vol. i., p. 103 of the Hort 
Trans. 



254 GARDENING. 

or Galande; IWi^Late Violet; Sih, Boy al Kensington; 
9th, the Incomparable, or Pavie Admirable ; 10th, the 
Pavie Rouge de Pomponne ; 11th, the Yellow Admira- 
ble, or peach having the apricot flavour : and (of the 
nectarine tribe), 12th, the Elriige ; 13th, Fairchild's 
White; 14th, Temple's; 15th, the Scarlet; 16th, the 
Early Ne wing ton ; 17th, the Late Newington; 18th, 
the Golden; 19th, the Red Roman; and, 20th, the 
Brugnon d'' Italic. * 

All these varieties are continued by budding, and, 
as in other cases, new ones are obtained by sowing 
the stones ; in doing which, we ought not to forget 
that, like oil-giving seeds in general, those of the 
peach require to be earthed as soon as they are 
separated from the pulp. In their second year (if 
wall trees be required), such of them as are des- 
tined for stems are budded close to the earth ; and if 
riders or standards be wanted, three, four, or six feet 
higher. In the spring following, the first shoots 
from these buds should be headed down to four, 
five, or six eyes, for the purpose of producing two 
upright and leading branches, and as many laterals, 
with which you be^in to give to the head the form 
you intend it shall ultimately take. We need scarce- 
ly remark that, on this point, the doctors in horti- 
culture are nearly as far apart from each other as 
are those of medicine in relation to the origin and 
contagiousness of yellow fever. But believing, as 
we do, that our object will be best fulfilled by turn- 
ing aside from these discussions, we shall content 
ourselves with a brief notice of two forms, which 
in our opinion are at once the simplest and most 
scientific. The first of these (the standard), as we 
have already observed, is nearly the natural form of 
the tree : requiring no interposition of art, if we ex- 
cept the removal of dead, or dying, or superfluous 

* We have excluded from this list the White ^nd the Red 
Nutmeg, and the Early Ann, because recommended only by 
their precocity. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 255 

limbs, and an occasional supply of wood (if this be 
wanted) to keep up a well-balanced head. It is also 
that form in which the tree succeeds best in hot cli- 
mates ; and in such it ought always to be employed. 
But in northern latitudes (where the heat is neither 
long-continued nor great), the fruit of the standard 
peach-tree is rarely seen in perfection : it may be 
large, and juicy, and well coloured, but it will always 
be deficient in that peculiar flavour, that aroma which 
is its true characteristic, and without which it is but 
an ordinary fruit.* To supply, therefore, as far as 
may be possible, without the aid of fire or glass, that 
high temperature in which the peach delights, we 
must resort, first, to the use of walls, which, be- 
sides protecting the tree from high and cold winds, 
concentrate the rays of the sun on its stem and 
branches, and on the earth which surrounds and 
nourishes its roots ; secondly, to the amelioration 
of the soil, by giving to it boin warmth and dryness, 
should it be deficient in these qualities ; and, thirdly, 
to that mode of training " which exposes to the 
light the greatest surface of leaf in the shortest 
space of time,t and, consequently, best promotes an 
equal distribution of the sap." For accomplishing 
these three objects, the rules are to construct your 
walls of stone, or brick, or wood, and of a height 
from 12 to 15 feet ; to lay out, on the eastern and 
southern sides of them, a border 10 feet wide, work- 
ed to the depth of three feet, and manured with a 
mixture of ashes and peat, or bog earth ;J to plant 
in this (2 1-2 feet distant from the wall) your young 
trees, furnished with two leading branches, and pre- 
senting a figure not unlike the letter Y ; to bring 
down these branches to a position nearly horizon- 

* To show the effect of climate on this fruit, Bosc says that 
he has eaten peaches at Verona, compared with which " the 
celebrated Clingstone of Montreuil (the Pomponne) would be 
regarded as an abortion." 

t Knight. ; Loudon. 



256 GARDENING. 

tal, and subsequently to train them upward, paral- 
lel to each other, as high as the top of the wall, and 
directly against its side, to which, throughout their 
whole length, they are to be securely fastened by 
woollen straps ; and, lastly, to encourage side-shoots 
from these leaders, so as to fill up with bearing wood 
the intermediate space between them, and such ex- 
terior space on the wall as may be thought proper 
and practicable. To this form is given the techni- 
cal name of the Wavy or Curvilinear Fan ; and it is 
obvious that, in preserving as well as in producing 
it, the use of the knife cannot be dispensed with. 
Be careful, therefore, in May and June, and occa- 
sionally in the succeeding months, to remove water 
shoots, and all ill-placed, redundant, or diseased 
buds ; and again, at the fall of the leaf, to cut away 
with a sharp knife, and close to the branches on 
which they grow, such new shoots as will not read- 
ily accommodate themselves to your design, or as 
may be unnecessary to it, and also all such old wood 
as may be useless or troublesome.* 

The general rules for thinning leaves and fruit 
(prescribed under a preceding article) must be care- 
fully observed in the treatment of peach-trees and 
nectarines, as they are known to have an uncom- 
mon degree of proneness to overbearing, and as the 
discipline we recommend will, besides giving an 
improved fruit, tend directly and greatly to fortify 

* Knight's method of pruning, in "high, cold, and wet situa- 
tions," and by which he secures good crops whpn even the sea- 
son is unpropitious, may be found uselul in our climate. " In- 
stead," he says, "of takmg off a large portion of the young 
shoots in the spring, and training a few only to a considerable 
length, as is the general practice, I retain a large number of the 
shoots, and pinch ofif the minute and succulent points to the 
length of one or two inches. By these means I obtain spurs 
which lie close to the wall, and give as strong and vigorous blos- 
soms, in even cold and wet situations and weather, as are pro- 
duced by the old method under circumstances the most favour- 
able."— Encyclopaedia of Gardening, p. 456. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 25* 

the trees against the attacks of their numerous en 
emies. Of these the Acarus, Cherines, Aphis, anu 
Thrips (an insect hardly perceptible to the naked 
eye), are the most common, and are best expelled 
by water and tobacco smoke. It is, however, the 
curculio, or grub (as we call it), that may, from its 
pre-eminence in mischief, be regarded as the de 
stroyer of the peach. Its attacks ordinarily begin 
in the stem near the surface of the earth ; and, if not 
arrested, will soon terminate in the roots, where it 
riots on the gum exuding from the many wounds i 
inflicts. The remedies resorted to in this case are, 
first, the application of boiling water to the roots ; 
secondly, a similar application of unslacked lime, 
in the proportion of one quart to a tree ; thirdly, re- 
moving the surface earth, and substituting foj it tan- 
ner's bark ; fourthly, removing the earth, as in the 
preceding case, in the month of November, and ex- 
posing the roots to the action of the frost during 
the winter ; and, lastly, encircling the lower part of 
the stem with straw, and thus compelhng the insect 
to begin his attack so far from the ground, that he 
will be unable to avail himself of its shelter before 
the coming on of winter. 

The diseases of the peach-tree are as numerous, 
and often as fatal, as the depredators just mention- 
ed; and are known to horticulturists under the 
names of the honey-dew, mildew, canker, spots, &c. 
The first of these yields to the flower of sulphur 
sprinkled over the tree ; but the most efllcient cure 
for all of them is the removal of the soil about their 
roots.* 

The Plum-tree [Prunus domestica) is a native of 
different parts of Europe, has been long cultivated, 
and has, of course, many varieties. Of these, the 

* Kinment's experiments, made in 1811, 12, and 13, show that 
the last of these diseases is the effect of too much vegetable 
food, and that, by reducing the quantity of this, the diseased 
trees will recover. 



258 GARDENING. 

best recommended are the Precoce of Tours, the 
Early Dmnson of Provence, the Green Mirahelip of 
Italy, the St. Catharine, the White Perdrigon, the 
Imperatrice, and all the Gages, blue, violet, and 
green. 

The St. Catharine, the white Perdigon, and the 
gages, are propagated by seeds, the products of 
which never fail to give plants differing in nothing 
from the parent stem;* while the other varieties 
can only be kept up by budding or grafting-! Where 
trees are of more than four years' growth, the latter 
of these operations is preferred ; and on all under 
that age, the former is thought best. 

Argillaceous soils, neither habitually wet nor oc- 
casionally inundated, and of medium quality, are 
those which best agree with the plum-tree. Where, 
from previous culture or accidental causes, the earth 
has become either very rich or very poor, the tree 
does not succeed. In the one case, its vigour is di- 
rected only to the production of wood and foliage ; 
and in the other, its growth is feeble and its life 
short. In favourable climates it should always be 
cultivated as a standard, and will then require only 
a little annual labour about the roots, and the re- 
moval from the head of dead or dying branches ; but 

* Tnis is, at least, a doubtful conclusion. Plants, like ani- 
mals of the same genus, will mix and produce new varieties, as 
is amply proved by artificial fecundation ; and the gages, we be- 
lieve, form no exception to the general law. We have, in sev 
eral instances, seen and tasted fruits, grown from the pits of the 
gage ; but we have never seen in any of these fruits an exact 
resemblance to the female parent. They have been of various 
colours, shapes, size, and flavour, although grown from pits 
coming from the same tree, according, as we supposed, to the 
character of the male parent. — J. B. 

t The Muscle, the St. Julian, and the Cerisette, are varieties 
raised from seeds or suckers, as stems on which to bud and graft 
other plums, &c. With this exception, all other suckers should 
be removed as soon as they appear. If you postpone this busi 
ness till winter, the wounds you then inflict will ensure you a 
double crop in the spring. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 259 

in northern latitudes and cold situations, the espa- 
lier form (as practised near Paris) may be not only 
useful, but indispensable. This differs in nothing 
from the ordinary mode but in pruning less severely. 
The cultivators at Montreuil, instead of shortening 
the branches to three or four eyes, leave them fif- 
teen or twenty feet long, and lay them down in such 
way as shall soonest and most completely enable 
them to cover the frame to which they are at- 
tached. 

With regard to product, ^^few and fine'''' is the 
general maxim. The thinning discipline must not, 
therefore, be omitted ; because it is that which will 
best fulfil both parts of the rule. (See on this head, 
article Apple-tree.) 

The gum and canker are the diseases most com- 
mon to the plum-tree, for which heading down is 
the best remedy.* When wasps attack the fruit 
they are most effectually kept oflT by nettings. 

The Cranberry ( Vaccmmm macrocarpum) . — This 
plant is a native of our own country, and merits 
more attention than has been given to it, as the ex- 
periments of the late Sir Joseph Banks prove at 
once the facility and the profit of making it an ob- 
ject of garden culture. f 

Growing naturally in swamps and bogs, it has 
been too hastily concluded that it would not succeed 
but in grounds " often inundated and always wet." 
But that this belief is erroneous can no longer be 
doubted, as we learn from Loudon, an eminent 
practical writer, that " the cranberry can always 
be made to thrive on the margin of a pond ;"" while 
the experiments of Salisbury (an amateur of the art) 
demonstrate tiiat " it will even bear abundantly in 
pots filled with bog earth, and placed under the 



* Abercrombie. 

f On a bed eighteen feet square, he raised three and a half 
bushels, Winchester measure. — See Hort. Trans., vol. i.,p. 71. 



260 GARDENING. 

shade of a hedge or fence."* In the first of these 

cases, enclose a portion of the pond by stakes, fill 
the bottom with stones, and on these place a stra- 
tum of bog earth, raised to the ordinary level of the 
pond, and upon Lhis plant a few cranberries. The 
runners will soon and completely cover the bed, and 
your harvests will be both abundant and regular, 
never suffering either from weather or insects. In 
the other case, select or make a hollow^ and within 
it form a bed of bog earth, set your plants upon 
this, and shade them on the south and east with 
some quick growers, as Indian corn, or the butter 
bean, &c. 

The Currant {Rihes ruhrum). — It is only of this 
sort and its varieties that we shall speak', as the 
fruits of the other species are rarely, if ever, admit- 
ted to the table. This plant is evidently of north- 
ern origin and habits, very indifferent to soil or sit- 
uation, and regardless of weather ; growing wher- 
ever planted, and never failing, when tolerably cul- 
tivated, to give a plentiful crop. The varieties of it 
are principally distinguished by colour, as the White, 
the Neio W/n7e,-and the While Crystal, the Large Red, 
the Cluster Red, the Champagne Pale Red, and the 
Dutch Pale Red. These are all propagated alike by 
seeds, roots, and cuttings, but generally by the last 
mode, which does not at all differ from that pre- 
scribed (in the next article) for the gooseberry. 
The only farther object of art in the management 
of this plant, is to keep the head (which is much 
disposed to become bushy) pervious to the sun and 
air, the stem clean, and the roots unencumbered 
with suckers. 

The Gooseberry {Ribes grossularia). — Though're- 
ally a native of Piedmont, this plant maybe regard- 
ed as a British production, as it is only in England 
and Scotland where its cultivation is well under- 

* See Hort. Trans., vol. ii., p. 90. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 261 

Stood and attended to, and where the fruit is held in 
high estimation, or deserves to bo so.*t ■ 

Its varieties are very numerous. In the London 
nurserie-s are no less than one hundred different 
sorts, and in those of Lancashire (where the cul- 
ture is most general) three hundred ; some of which 
are early, others late ; some large, and others small ; 
some abounding in flavour, and others entirely des- 
titute of it. In our brief catalogue we shall be gov- 
erned altogether by the uses to which the fruit is 
destined, and shall therefore indicate only three 
sorts, the Warrington or Manchester Red, employed 
for the dessert ; the Earhj Wilmot Red, famous for 
tarts and sauces ; and the Walnut Red, recommend- 
ed by its quality of keeping or preserving better 
than any other variety of the family.J 

Liiie other fruit-trees, the gooseberry may be 
propagated by seeds, suckers, cuttings, &c., but the 
last is the mode generally adopted. In this case 
the cuttings are taken from bearing shoots, placed in 
the nursery eight or ten inches apart, and trained 
to the height of a foot with a clear stem, excepting 
three or four buds at the top, which must be left to 
form the future head, and which, when they have 
pushed a few inches, must be radiated at an angle 
between forty and forty-five degrees. When the 
roots are sufficiently formed, the plants may be 
taken up and placed in rows in the border or square 
intended for them, at the distance of six feet be- 
tween the rows, and four feet from plant to plant. 
An annual labour about the roots is necessary, and, 

* This fruit is also of very large size and fine flavour in some 
parts of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. 

t In Italy, France, and Spain, the plant is scarcely known, 
and very little esteemed ; nor does it attract much attention in 
Holland and Germany. 

X If a. larger collection be thought desirable, it may be had 
on good terms and in excellent order from J. Whalley of Liver- 
pool. 



262 GARDENING. 

unless the soil be uncommonly rich, a yearly dress- 
ing also of stable manure or peat earth. Too 
much shade is oppressive to the plant and injurious 
to the fruit, but a degree of it is useful to both, and 
is best obtained by sowing rows of the Jerusalem 
artichoke between those of the gooseberry. When 
the heads become crowded, all cross and water 
shoots growing in their centres must be pinched or 
cut off; and if the smaller berries also be removed 
early in the season, the result to the crop will be 
favourable ; but, in performing the first of these op- 
erations, we must remember that the summer 
shoots in general must not be touched. 

Caterpillars of different names, the white, black, 
and green (larva of the Tenthrendinida), are the 
worst enemies of the gooseberry. Most of these, 
when full grown, descend into the earth, and remain 
there for the winter. This habit suggests the most 
probable mode of destroying them. Some horti- 
culturists accordingly lay hot lime around the roots 
of the plants ; others saturate the surrounding earth 
with boiling water; others with the urine of cows; 
others dig into the earth seaweed or grass, sprinkled 
with a solution of salt and water; and J. Tweedie 
" pares off three inches of the surface earth, which 
generally includes the eggs of the caterpillar, makes 
a deep trench, and places this at the bottom, where 
the temperature is such as to prevent the eggs from 
hatching." Various washes have also been devised 
for destroying the larva while above ground and on 
the plants ; but, in the opinion of Loudon, with lit- 
tle if any success. " Hand-picking," he says, " how- 
ever tedious it may seem, will in the end be found 
more certain and cheap than any other mode." 

The Grape-vine (Vitis vinifera). — This species of 
the vine (the only one of which we mean to speak) 
is believed to be a native of Persia,* whence it has 

* See Michaux, Olivier, and Sickler. The last of these wri- 



FRUIT GARDEN. 263 

been spread over many different regions. Indeed, 
climate alone appears to have prescribed boundaries 
to its diffusion ; as in Europe we find it successfully 
cultivated between the 25th and 52d degrees of north 
latitude, and rarely, if ever, with much advantage 
beyond these limits. Under favourable circumstan- 
ces, it attains to a great sr/.c ;ind age.* 

Having been cultivated ai least from the time of 
Noah, its varieties are so multiplied as to set even 
enumeration at defiance if a fact, after all, of little 
importance to our present object, as it is only a 
very small class of these varieties, and a still smaller 
proportion of this class, that comes within the scope 
of the present work. The following is a list of the 
sorts which, in our opinion, are best adapted to the 
climate, and fittest for the only use we mean to make 
of them, that of the dessert : the Chasselas of Fon- 
tainebleau, the White do., the Violet do., the Black Mus- 
cat of Jura, the Black do. of the Po, the While do. of 
do., the Muscat of Alexandria, the Malvoisie of the 
Po, the Red Hamburg, and the Sweetwater. 

ters has given a very curious and learned account of the progress 
of the Grape-vine from Persia to Sicily, by the way of Egypt 
and Greece, in his work entitled Geschichte der Obs. Cult., vol. i. 

* Pliny speaks of a vine 600 years old. Bosc says there are 
several in Burgundy 400 years old ; and Millar, that "a vineyard 
is young at 100 years." A vine at North AUerton (in England) 
covered one hundred and thirty-seven square yards ; another at 
Hampton Court, one hundred and sixteen ; and a third at Val- 
entines (in Essex) one hundred and forty-seven. " The Hamp- 
ton vine ordinarily produces 2200 bunches, averaging a pound 
each; and one of its branches measures one hundred and foui- 
teen feet in length." — Encyclopaedia of Gardening, p. 843. 

t The most successful attempt yet made at an enumeration 
of the varieties of the vine may be found in a Spanish work by 
Don S. Roxas Clemente, Librarian of the Botanic Garden at 
Madrid. Among the many good things done, or attempted by 
Bonaparte in France, was the bringing together in a single gar- 
den (that of the Luxembourg) all the varieties of the vine to be 
found in that country. The work began in 1801, under the par- 
ticular directions of Chaptal and Bosc ; and in 1809 three hun- 
dred sorts had been collected, cultivated, and classed. We have 
heard with regret that the work was not completed. 



264 GARDENING. 

Like many other plants, the vine is propagated : 

1st, By Seeds, when now variv^ues are wanted, 
and most generally by two processes, one of which 
consists " in approaching iwo or more sorts so near- 
ly together as to produce a promiscuous impregna- 
tion ;"* the other " in cutting out the stamen from 
the flower of the variety to be impregnated, intro- 
ducing the pollen of that with which the cross is to 
be made, and, finally, by dusting the stigma with the 
ripe anthers." The former is the method of Speech- 
ley, and the latter that of Knight. 

2d, By Layers. — This method is little practised, 
because, though plants so raised give their fruit most 
promptly, they are both feeble and short-lived. 

3d, By Scions. — These are never resorted to but 
to correct errors. When the varieties originally 
planted are bad or unfruitful, grafting is the remedy ; 
and though the operation be not uniformly success- 
ful, still it succeeds often enough to recommend the 
experiment. And, 

4th, By Cuttings. — This is the mode generally 
employed, and that which best deserves to be so. 
The cuttings are of three kinds : the long (12 to 18 
inches), the short (about half the length of the pre- 
ceding), and the single eye.^ The first and second 
have each a portion of the wood of two years ; and 
the third has but wood enough of the last year to fur- 
nish the germe of a single bud. The first of these 
methods is that of the Continent of Europe, and has 
much and long experience to support it ; the last is 
an English novelty, with little to recommend it, and 
probably growing out of the easier management of 
short sets when raised in pots and hotbeds, according 
to their system. One quality is, however, indispen- 
sable to cuttings of all kinds, whether long or short; 
and that is, that " the wood composing them be solid 

* See Treatise on the Vine. 

+ Mitchell suggested, and Speechley recommends this spe- 
cies of cutting. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 265 

and compact, round and short-jointed, and that the 
eyes or buds be large and prominent.* Cut in the 
autumn, they must be carefully buried until the en- 
suing spring, when they may be taken up and plant- 
ed where it is intended they shall permanently re- 
main. 

Many appearances indicate that the vine is indif- 
ferent to the nature of the soil in which it grows, 
as it is found to live and thrive in limestone clay, 
in chalk, in gravel, in granite, in schist, in earths 
charged with the oxyde of iron, in the rubbish of old 
foundations, and even in the midst of brick pave- 
ments and castle walls. f Nor, judging from a first 
and cursory view, should we suppose it to be more 
nice with regard to exposition, as it may be found 
growing under many different aspects, and on every 
possible variety of surface. Still these appearan- 
ces are deceptive, and yield to the evidence of many 
facts, carefully collected by horticulturists, which 
prove that, notwithstanding this general power of 
adaptation, the vine is particularly sensible to the 
influences of soil and exposure, and that, under even 
shght changes or modifications of these, it becomes 
more or less fertile, and gives its products earher 
or later, or with juices more or less abundant, sac- 
charine, and well-flavoured. In strong, rich soils, 
its growth in wood and foliage is vigorous ; but the 
fruit ripens slowly, and is comparatively tasteless. | 

* The soils which in France are most generally assigned to 
vineyards are, 1st, limestone clay ; 2d, gravelly clay, as at Nis- 
mes, Montpelier, and Bourdeanx ; 3d, granitic soil, which gives 
the wines called Cotes Rotis, Hermitage, and Taville, &c. ; and, 
4th, chalk, as in Champagne. 

t Sec Treatise on Fruit-trees by Hitt, and Laurence on the 
Fruit tjarden. Rozier paved his vineyard at Bezieres. The 
vine mentioned by Hitt grew in the foundations of Belvoir Cas- 
tle, and that spoken of by Laurence grew out of the wall of an 
old castle twenty feet from the ground. 

:j: The Clovego estate, famous for the finest description of 
Burgundy wine, changed masters during the revolution, and 
was, out of mistaken kindness, or from a desire of doubling the 



266 GARDENING. 

In soils, whether rich or poor, resting on a hard, 
impervious subsoil of rock or of hardpan, or on 
one often or habitually wet, the plant is feeble, diffi- 
cult to rear, short-lived, and never productive ; and 
on the north sides of hills, and in the neighbour- 
hood of large masses of wood and water, it does 
not thrive. It is only under southern and eastern 
aspects, and in soils light and warm, and of a me- 
dium quality as to strength, that the vine attains 
that degree of perfection of which it is susceptible.* 

It is this last-mentioned circumstance that directs 
us in the choice and application of manures, and 
which forbids those of a heating quality, or of any 
quality in large quantities. The fresh mould of old 
pasture land, the scrapings of streets, and composts 
composed of stable litter; the leaves of trees, weeds 
in a green state, and animal remains of all kinds (as 
hair, skins, feathers, bones, &c., thoroughly rotted), 
and applied in moderate doses every second year, 
form the most approved practice on this head. 

The vine, from the length and pliancy of its 
Dranches, is subjected to very different forms, some 
of which are no doubt dictated by mere fancy, and 
others by a long experience of their usefulness. 
Of the last we shall mention, 

1st. The dwarf standard, which is that exclusively 
employed in large vineyards in the northern parts 

quantity of the crop, abundantly manured. The consequence, 
as might be expected, was a larger produce, but a diminished 
price. 

* This delicacy of constitution alone enables us to explain 
the cause of the great differences found in vines of the same 
sort, cultivated in the same way, and growing even withifi sight 
of each other. The Lafite wine is only found on a farm not 
exceeding in size 300 acres. The Ostrian, &c., is the produce 
of a tract not much larger. The Verdelho grape gives genume 
Madeira only in the island of that name, &c., &c. An external 
mark of a soil fitted for the vine is said by Switzer to be the 
production of brambles. " Where," he says. " these grow, the 
vine never fails." 



FRUIT GARDEN. 267 

of France and Germany, and which consists in re- 
ducing the plant to a bush of two or three shoots, 
and keeping these erect by a stake. The shoots 
will each give two or three bunches within fifteen 
or eighteen inches from the earth, and are naturally 
succeeded by others, which in their turn become 
bearers. 

2d. The prostrate or creeping form, by which the 
vine is trained over the ground like a melon or cu- 
cumber. This was early noticed by Bacon, and has 
been since recommended by Vispre, " as least ex- 
pensive and troublesome, and best calculated for ri- 
pening the fruit, by placing it within the sphere of that 
heat which is emitted by the earth during the night." 

3d. The espalier form^ by which the leading and 
lateral branches are trained against an open frame 
or trellis, and in such way " as to expose the lar- 
gest surface to the action of the sun in the shortest 
space of time." And, 

4th. The wall espalier, which differs in nothing 
from the preceding but in having behind it a solid 
structure, and the additional heat reflected by it. 
This form is often met with in Europe, where the 
southern, eastern, and western sides of farmhouses 
and cottages are made to supply the walls, and do 
it very completely. In gardens, the structures in- 
tended to produce the same effect are of two kinds : 
the one rising to the height of fifteen and even 
twenty feet, made of stone or wood, and meant to 
protect the taller kinds of fruit-trees ; and the other, 
of similar materials, but not exceeding six feet in 
height, and calculated for bushes and dwarfs. 
Speechley says the vine does well on the latter; 
and we are instructed by Williams, of Pitmaison> 
how best to derive advantage from the former. 
" To fill up," he say^, " the intervals between the 
trees, plant vines, train them horizontally under the 
coping of the wall, and, by inverting and inarching 
their branches, find means to occupy every vacant 
21 



268 GARDENING. 



past, gradually trained bearing branches of a small 
black cluster grape to the distance of near fifty feet 
from the root, and I find the bunches every year 
grow larger and ripen earlier, as the shoots con- 
tinue to advance ; for, according to Knight's theory 
of the circulation of the sap, the juices become 
richer the farther they pass through the alburnum : 
whence it follows that trees and vines give blos- 
som-buds in greater quantity and perfection in pro- 
portion as the branches are long, and that even the 
extremities of these are best furnished with flow- 
ers and fruit." 

As pruning is essential to all these forms, though 
not in the same degree, it may be proper to make a 
few remarks on this subject. And, first, the knife, 
in its application to the grape-vine, is not used till 
the second year, when the plant has pushed three 
or four shoots. Two of these (generally the low- 
est) are selected for bearers, and shortened down 
to the fourth, fifth, or sixth eye from the root, while 
all others are entirely removed. This is done in 
the autumn after vegetation is over, and forms the 
whole of the first year's pruning. In the subse- 
quent spring, and so soon as the buds have pushed, 
follows what the French call enhourgeonement, and 
the English disbudding; and which consists " in rub- 
bing off all fore-right and lateral shoots, which, if 
retained, might crowd or cross the bearing branch- 
es, or otherwise obstruct the form intended to be 
given to the vine." Suckers are also to be care- 
fully removed, and with them axillary buds and 
curls, and such of the roots as may run within eight 
inches of the surface. The third year's pruning 
will be the result of a careful examination, 1st, of 
the two leading branches, and the young wood they 
have respectively produced ; and, 2d, of the surface 
(whether of wall or of trellis) which it is your in- 
tention to cover. If these be in just proportion to 



FRUIT GARDEN. 269 

each other, the knife is unnecessary but to remove 
dead or diseased branches ; but if the growth of the 
shoots be feeble, or if some be feeble and others 
vigorous, in both cases the knife is the remedy; 
shortening all, in the first case, to five or six eyes 
each ; and in the other, the feeblest only. Future 
prunings will but be repetitions of this ; and, as a 
general rule, every pruning must be followed by a 
thorough digging of the earth about the roots of the 
plant. 

The insects most injurious to the grape-vine are 
the red spider, which is best expelled by frequent 
waterings ; and the thrips, and one or two sorts of 
the cocci,* which may be destroyed by smoke. 
The best protection against the blue fly is furnished 
by bottles filled with any kind of sweet liquor, and 
hung up among the vines ; and horsehair bags will 
completely defend the fruit against the attacks of 
wasps and garden birds. 

The Fig-tree {Ficus), (classed by horticulturists 
among the berries),! is a native of Asia; and in all 
hot climates may be made an important object of 
cultivation. In Greece and in the Ionian Isles it at- 
tains to the size of an apple-tree, bears its foliage 
throughout the year, and is remarkable for hardi- 
ness and longevity. Even in climates less propi- 
tious to it, it retains the last of these qualities. One 
brought to England, from Aleppo in 1643, by Dr. 
Pocock, is yet hving and vigorous ; and another, in- 
troduced by Cardinal Pole more than a century 
earlier (1525), is said to be in the same condition. J 

The species of it are very numerous ; but of this 
long list we shall speak only of the Ficus Carica, or 
common fig, because it is only from the cultivation 
of this that we may have anything to hope. Nor of 
its varieties do we know more than six that can 
probably be acclimated on the banks of the Hudson. 

* Hespeiiduin and Adonidutn. 

t Loudon. X Idem 



270 GARDENING. 

These are, the Long White, the Yellow or Angelica, 
and the Violet, cultivated near Paris ; and the Black 
Ischia, and Black and White Genoa, which ripen in 
England. 

AH the varieties of the fig are propagated by 
seeds,* suckers, buds, scions,! and layers ; nor is its 
propagation by crossing unknown to the horticultu- 
rist ; but this can only be effected by planting two 
varieties near to each other, as no means have yet 
been discovered for extracting the male organ of 
the fig without destroying the female. Of these 
different modes, however, those by cuttings and lay- 
ers are most frequently employed and best recom- 
mended. In the first case, select in the autumn 
eight or ten inches of young wood, with one or two 
of old attached to it, from the shortest jointed and 
most fruitful boughs ; bury these during the winter 
in a bed of sand ; and in the spring, plant them in 
a border of fresh and warm loam, against the south- 
ern or eastern side of a ten-foot wall. J Layering 
here does not differ from the process of the same 
name employed in other cases : shoots of two or 
three years are laid down in the spring, and a single* 
summer will be sufficient for the formation of roots ; 
after which, sever the young plant from the old, and 
set it out as directed for cuttings. 

In hot climates, as in the case of the peach, the 
standard is the form most approved ; but in climates 
like ours, the stellate fan is that which offers the 
strongest assurance of success.^ It is produced by 
training to a single stem, encouraging lateral shoots, 
and bringing these down in succession, so as to pre- 
sent a figure nearly circular, and so low as to give 
it the benefit of a reflected as well as a direct heat.|| 

* Loudon. t Idem. % Idem. 

^ " Fan training from two branches is bad, gives only wood 
and leaves." — Idem. Kosc says, "Keep the branches short, 
low, and spreading." See also Hort. Trans., vol. iii., p. 307. 

II Knight's method does not materially differ from this. He 



FRUIT GARDEN. 271 

We have already, suggested, in relation to other 
trees, that their mode of bearing ought, in a great 
degree, to regulate our method of pruning them; 
nor is the remark more applicable to the apple or 
the peach than to the fig tree. We need hardly in- 
form the reader that this last blossoms twice in the 
year ; first under the spring, and again under the 
summer flow of the sap ; and, where the climate, 
&c., is favourable, matures two crops in the season, 
071 two distinct sets of young shoots. Whence it fol- 
lows that the management which shall tend most 
directly to multiply shoots or bearers, is, in rela- 
tion to this tree, that which is best. Now many 
experiments show that, if you shorten a branch of 
the fig-tree with a knife, the tree will exert itself 
only to recover what it has lost ; and, of course, 
that you will but have a single shoot instead of the 
one you have removed : whereas, if you substitute 
breaking for cutting, you will, instead of one, have 
several shoots, and, consequently, a larger propor- 
tion of fruit. Hence the rule, " to cut when you 
want to lessen the bulk of the head, and to break at 
ten, twelve, or fifteen inches from the stem, when 
an increased quantity either of wood or of fruit is 
your object." These remarks do not, however, su- 
persede the more general rules for removing dead, 
or diseased, or redundant branches, or for such 
other use of the knife as may be necessary in giv- 
ing form to the head ; and the less so, as the plant 
is among those which bear cutting without injury. 

Any soil not positively wet, provided it be annu- 
ally dug and triannually manured with stable litter, 
will suit the fig-tree. But a more laborious and ex- 
pensive operation is necessary to protect it against 
hard and frosty weather With this view, the prac- 

encourages lateral shoots from a single stem, and trains them 
horizontally, or even downward, close to the wall; by which 
he avoids a too great abundance of wood, matures that which 
he retains, and escapes injury from frost. — Hort. Trans., vol. 
iii., p. 307. 



272 GARDENING. 

tice in France is to bury in the earth all such limbs 
or parts of limbs as can be brought sufficiently low ; 
while in England they cover the tree with matting, 
or straw, or branches of evergreens. Either method 
may be usefully adopted here, remembering, as a 
general principle, to make the covering as light as 
may be at all consistent with the object. 

We have said above that the natural habit of the 
fig is to give two crops in the year; the latter of 
which, in hot climates, is found to be the best : but 
the result with us will be different. The spring 
shoots only will give' fruit here, and must be retain- 
ed ; while all embryos showing themselves after 
midsummer should be carefully rubbed off. The 
effect of this will be, not merely to disencumber the 
tree of fruit that would not ripen, but to turn the 
surplus energy wasted upon it to the preparation of 
new embryo figs for the succeeding year.* 

We cannot dismiss this article without saying 
something on the artificial method employed, even 
in hot climates, of improving and ripening the fig, 
and to which has been given the name of caprifica- 
tion. This process consists in placing on the trees 
a few spring figs, in which the Cynips has depos- 
ited its eggs. From these multitudes of gnats will 
issue, and in their turn puncture the crop of fall 
figs, and thus increase their flavour, and quicken, 
as is believed, their maturity. Such was former- 
ly the practice in the Levant; while in France 
they pricked the fruit with a quill or straw dipped 
in olive oil or brandy, and in Italy with the point 
of a knife medicated in the same way, on the sup- 
position that any small wound inflicted on the fruit 
would have an effect similar to that of the sting of 
a gnat. These practices are, however, no longer 
as general as they have been, and, like others 
founded on, doubtful principles, are fast yielding to 

* Swayne on the management of the fig in the open air. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 273 

a better philosophy. " How," says Bosc, " can the 
larva of the Cynips improve the fig, otherwise than 
the larva of the PhalcEua improves the applet And 
who would be desirous of having a crop of worm- 
eaten apples, merely for the pleasure of eating them 
a week or a fortnight earlier"!* 

The fig-tree is liable to few diseases, nor is. the 
fruit much injured by the attacks of insects. In 
England the red spider, and in France a species of 
Coccus, to which is given the name of ihe Jig-louse^ 
are regarded as its worst enemies. The first is got 
rid of by watering and smoking the tree ; and the 
last by rubbing the stem, branches, &c., with a 
coarse cloth. 

The Mulberry (Morus). — The species are two, 
the White, cultivated for its leaves only (vi'liich form 
the food of the silkworm), and the Black, a native 
of our own forests, and well meriting our attention 
for its fruit, recommended as it is by its highly aro- 
matic flavour and cooling subacid juices, which, 
like those of the strawberry, are not susceptible of 
the acetous fermentation, and, of course, particu- 
larly proper and useful for rheumatic and gouty pa- 
tients. f 

This tree is propagated by seeds, suckers, layers, 
cuttings, and scions. Those from seeds are suppo- 
sed to give the largest berries, but at such an ex- 
pense both of time and patience as to deter most 
cultivators from the experiment. Suckers are liable 
to the same objection, though in a somewhat less 
degree ; and grafting, except by approach, rarely 
succeeds. J Layers and cuttings are, therefore, the 
modes generally employed ; of each of which we 
shall say a few words : and, 

* Olivier, speaking of caprification, says, " It is a tribute paid 
by man to ignorance and prejudice ;" adding, that the practice 
is going fast into disuse, even in the Ionian Isles. — Travels in 
the Ottoman Empire. 

t Encyclopaedia of Gardening, t Hort. Trans., vol. i., p. GO. 



274 GARDENING. 

1. Of Layers. — To obtain these, erect a scaffold 
under any fruit-bearing tree, and on this place pots 
or boxes filled with earth, to receive the branches. *" 
These will root sufficiently the first summer ; after 
which, they may be transplanted to the nursery, and 
trained to a single stem. When four years old, take 
them up and place them where they are permanent- 
ly to stand. Plains thus managed will give fruit the 
second or third year after the last planting.! 

2. By Cuttings. — These may be eight or ten inches 
long, with a small portion of the preceding year's 
wood attached. Plant them in any mild weather 
of the spring or autumn, in rows nine inches apart, 
leaving only one or two buds above the ground ; 
cover the bed with half rotten leaves ; give it a lit- 
tle water if the weather be dry, and transplant the 
next season into the nursery. Their future treat- 
ment will be the same as that of layers. Millar 
suggests the rearing of cuttings in pots plunged in 
a hotbed ; but in this experiment Knight and others 
have failed, and recommend, instead of it, to plant 
the cuttings in autumn under a south wail, where 
they remain till April, when they are to be taken up, 
placed in pots, and transferred to the hotbed. " In 
this situation," says Knight, "they will vegetate 
strongly, and emit roots in such abundance, that 
not one cutting in a hundred, with proper attention, 
will fail." A mellow, fertile loam is the soil in which 
the mulberry succeeds best, and the standard is the 
form generally given to it; but the experiments of 
Williams and Knight give reason to believe that the 
fruit would be improved were we to train the tree 
Against a south wall, in either the horizontal or stel- 
late form. J 

In pruning the mulberry we ought to aim at two 
things : diminishing the luxuriant growth of the tree, 

* Knight. t Idem. 

X Loudon. Hort. Trans,, vol. ii., p. 92, and vol. iii., p. G6. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 275 

and increasing, at the same time, its disposition to 
bear fruit. Fortunately, both objects are readily at- 
tainable by partial decortication ; by tight and long- 
continued ligatures round the branches ; by ringing, 
as already described ; and with better effect and 
greater facility, by training the branches perpen- 
dicularly, or nearly so, downward.* The time for 
pruning the mulberry is in the spring, because it is 
then you can best distinguish the blossom buds from 
others. Pinch off every barren shoot, and shorten 
every bearing one (not wanted to cover the waH) at 
the third or fourth leaf; it being well known that 
the bud immediately below the point where the 
branch is shortened will give fruit the following 
year. 

The Raspberry (Rubus). — Of this plant there are 
two species, subjects of garden culture: the Ideus, 
propagated for its fruit ; the Odoraius, for its per- 
fume and its rose-coloured flowers. It is only of 
the varieties of the former that we shall now speak. 
These are, 1st, the Wood Raspberry, giving a fruit 
small and sweet, increasing in size, but diminishing 
in flavour, under cultivation. 2d, the large common 
Raspberry (both red and white), giving good fruit, 
and a great deal of it, if favourably situated and 
well managed. In rich and shaded soils it loses 
much of its flavour; and in those freely manured 
with stable dung, becomes disagreeable to the taste. 
3d, the Large Red and the Large White Antwerp, de- 
cidedly superior to the preceding sorts, but more 
troublesome, as they are not productive but when 
laid down and protected from the winter frosts. 
A.nd, 4th. the Cane Stock, regarded on the whole as 
the fittest for the main crop. 

This plant is a native of cold and mountainous 
regions, and, of course, succeeds best when placed 
on the north sides of hills, or in borders a little 

*■ Hort. Trans., vol. iii., p. 63. No tree submits to this form 
more readily, or to more advantage, than the mulberry. 



276 GARDENING. 

shaded. A soil loose and moist (not wet), and oc- 
casionally and lightly manured with the surface- 
mould of old pasture land, is most favourable to it. 

Like other plants which perpetuate themselves 
by suckers, as the Annana, the Jasmin, the Bread 
Fruit, &c., the raspberry soon becomes infertile; 
and hence the rule for setting out new plantations 
every seventh or eighth year. This is done by seeds 
and cuttings, but better and more generally by suck- 
ers, taken up in the fall or in the spring, and set out 
in vvell-laboured trenches four feet asunder, and at 
the distance in these of two and a half feet apart. 
If placed nearer together, they crowd and injure 
each other; and if farther removed, they lose the 
advantage of the shade they would otherwise mu- 
tually furnish. 

The raspberry, when left to itself, remains long 
barren, or productive only in leaves and wood ; but, 
so soon as it acquires a sufficient number of lateral 
branches, its fertility commences. To hasten this 
effect, therefore, is the great desideratum in the cul- 
ture of the plant ; and the knife is accordingly em- 
ployed freely and annually, in removing the old 
wood, and in shortening the young to one third of 
its length. Of the retained and shortened shoots, 
not more than five should be left to a bush ;* and if 
they be either of the Antwerp races, they should be 
carefully covered with earth on the approach of 
winter, as otherwise the effect of the frost will 
much impair, if it does not entirely destroy, their 
fertility for the ensuing season. 

We need scarcely add, that, though hardy, the 
raspberry, to do well, must be kept from weeds. 

♦ Loudon. J. C. Kecht ( Versuch der Weinl^ti) produces ber- 
ries at Berlin much larger tlian are known elsewhere, by train- 
ing a single stem to the height of 8 or 10 feet, and vigorously re- 
moving all suckers. This is directly opposed to the theory of 
shortening the stems for the purpose of producingSide-shoots ; 
without which, it has been generally thought that k he plant could 
not be made productive. 



FRUIT GARDEN. 277 

The Strawberry {Fragaria). — Of this there are 
several species, the principal of which are the Pine, 
ihe Single-leaf or Monophy Ua, and the Chili, natives 
of South America; the Carolina, the Scarlet or Vir- 
ginian, and the Wood, natives of North America; 
and the Hautboy, and Alpine or Prolific, natives of 
Europe. Of these, the Alpine and the wood are 
best propagated from seeds, as in this way they 
never fail to reproduce themselves, and give fruit as 
soon, and of a finer quality, than the offsets. The 
other species are more readily multiplied by run- 
ners ; which, as they take root at every joint, and 
grow the more vigorously the more they are cut, 
necessarily furnish a great abundance of plants. 

When seeds are used, we must be careful to em- 
ploy fresh and well-ripened fruit, mashed in the 
hand, and mixed with a little mellow earth, and 
sown in rows three feet apart. When, on the other 
hand, runners are employed, they must be taken oif 
near the ground, divided into sets, planted in rows 
as in the other case, and occasionally lightly shaded 
and watered, until they give evidence of having 
taken root, wkicli they rarely fail to do very prompt- 
ly. In both proceijses, the ground must be kept 
loose and clean, and moderately manured with com- 
post dung. 

With regard either to general or special rules in 
this case, we cannot do better th'an to make the read- 
er acquainted with the method of Mr. Keans, of 
Islesworth, an English fruit-gardener, who has cul- 
tivated the strawberry with ujicommon success.- 
*' In preparing the ground," says he, " if new and 
stiff, trench it; but if the su-bsoil be of an inferior 
kind, simply dig it, and place the dung at the bot- 
tom : if, again, the soil be good to the full depth, 
bring the bottom spit to the top, and the top spit to the 
bottom, and place the dung between the two. The 
month of March is the best time for planting either 
seedlings or runners, and remember to make your 



2tS GARDENING. 

plantations of these, and never from old plants. 
Sow in beds of three or four rows, with alleys be- 
tween the beds to walk and work in. When the 
planting is finished, keep the bed free from weeds, 
and permit no crops between the rows. When the 
runners begin to show themselves, cut them away 
at least three times in the season ; and at each cut- 
ting dig the ground between the rows ; and as of- 
ten, cover the surface with a sprinkling of clean 
straw,* for the purpose, principally, ol" preventing 
evaporation. One of these cuttings must be done a 
short time before the fruit ripens, and will have a 
powerful effect in strengthening the root ; and, at 
the second digging, work into the rows a little half- 
rotted dung." 

To these remarks, which apply to all the varieties 
alike, Mr. Keans subjoins a few specific notices as 
follows : 

" 1. For the Pine strawberry the best soil is a 
light loam, though no other strawberry will bear a 
strong loam better than this. This is the sort from 
which it is most difficult to obtain a good crop. 
Particular care must be taken that they are planted 
in open ground; for in small gardens they grow 
strong, but seldom bear fruit, in consequence of being 
shaded by standard trees, and, under walnut-trees in 
in particular, tltey run altogether to leaf. In planting 
pines I keep the beds two feet apart, and put the 
plants eighteen inches from each other in the rows, 
leaving three feet alleys between the beds. The 
first year of the pine is the best ; the second gives 
a good crop, but the third gives less. 

" 2. The Scarlet must be. treated like the Pine, 
excepting that the rows may be a little nearer to- 
gether, and the alleys between them a little less. 

" 3. The Hautboy thrives best in a light soil well 
supplied with dung ; for excess of manure does not 

♦ It is from this practice that the plant derives its name 



FRUIT GARDEN- 279 

drive it into leaf like the pine. In other respects, 
the culture is the same as lor the pine. There are, 
however, many different sorts of Hautboys : one 
has the male and female organs in the same blos- 
som, and bears freely ; but the sort I prefer is the 
one which contains the male organs in one blossom 
and the female in another. The fruit of this is of 
the finest colour, and of far superior flavour. Care 
must be taken that there are not too many male 
plants in the bed ; for, as they bear no fruit, they make 
more runners than the females. One male to ten fe- 
males is the proper proportion for an abundant crop. 

" 4. The Wood strawberry is best raised from seed 
fresh gathered, sowing it immediately in a bed of 
rich earth. When of proper size, I transfer the 
plants to other beds, where they continue tiljl the 
next March. They are then planted out in beds 
and rows, and at the distances before described. 
And, 

" 5. The Alpine or Prolific must always be raised 
from the seed, sown in a bed of rich earth. When 
of proper size (which will be in July or August), 
the plants are put out in rows, at the back of hedges 
or of walls, in a rich, moist soil ; the rows two feet 
apart, and the plants twelve inches from each other. 
My Alpines this year, and thus managed, are bear- 
ing most abundantly ; and so much so, that, in gath- 
ering them, there is not room for the women to set 
their feet without destroying many. In quickness 
of bearing the Alpines are before all other sorts, as 
they give their fruit within a single year ; whereas 
the others do not bear under two years." 

In gathering the fruit, employ only dry weather. 
Berries taken early in the morning and late in the 
evening keep the best, but those picked at midday 
have the most perfume. Pinch off the calyx and 
one quarter of an inch, of the peduncle with the 
berry. 

The Walnut {Juglans regia). — This tree is sup- 



280 GARDENING. 

posed to be a native of Persia, and of the southern 
side of Mount Caucasus, and yields a nut which 
holds a considerable place among the dessert fruits, 
and which has been recommended, as far back as 
the time of Pliny, as a safe and powerful vermi- 
fuge.* Its varieties are the Oval, the Large French,! 
the Tender, and the Thick-shelled. 

To obtain these, Millar and Forsyth recommend 
sowing the nuts in a nursery, keeping them clean, 
and leaving their maturity to time, without any in- 
terposition of art to hasten their productiveness. 
But Knight and others have succeeded so well by 
inarching and budding, that these methods may be 
considered as having nearly superseded ihe older 
and slower modes of propagation. In employing 
the former (inarching), your young plants, growing 
in pots, are raised to some branch of an old bearing 
tree, and grafted by approach. A union takes place 
in the summer ; and in the fall you detach the scion 
from the parent stem. In the other case, the pro- 
cess is equally sure and less troublesome. Many 
minute buds, almost concealed in the bark, will be 
found near the base of the annual shoots. These 
must be taken in preference to those which are 
fuller and more prominent, and inserted near the 
summit of the last year's wood, and, of course, near 
the base of the annual shoots. " Thus managed," 
says Knight, " they will be found to succeed with 
nearly as much certainty as those of other fruit- 
trees, provided the buds be in a more mature state 
than those of the stock into which they are set." 

The walnut-tree grows well in many different 
soils, but does best in a deep, sandy loam, resting 
on a dry subsoil. It is often employed as a screen 
for other and more delicate fruit-trees, in which 
case it is arranged on the northern and western side 

* The Spaniards grate the nufinto their tarts, &c., probably 
with a view to its supposed medicinal quality, 
t Before 15G2 it was called the Gaul or French nut 



FRUIT GARDEN. 281 

of the garden. Its diseases are generally the result 
of accident, and it has few, if any, enemies among 
the insect tribes. 

The Chestnut {Fagus castanea) is a native of Sar- 
dis, and, it is said, was first brought to Europe by Ti- 
berius Caesar. Be this fact as it may, another, of 
which we are better assured, is, that the tree has 
been long naturalized in Italy and Spain, and that 
in these countries it contributes an important article 
to the food of man. 

Like the walnut, it was long propagated by sow- 
ing the nut; but the shorter process of grafting (as 
already detailed under the preceding article) may 
be advantageously substituted for this. The exper- 
iments of the late Sir J. Banks and of Mr. Knight 
demonstrate that " the Spanish chestnut succeeds 
readily, when grafted in almost any of the usual 
ways ; and that, when the grafts are taken from 
bearing branches, the young trees blossom the suc- 
ceeding year."* 

The soil most proper for the chestnut'is a sandy 
loam, on a dry subsoil. With regard to situation, 
it does well in northern and western borders ; but, 
as its shade is unfriendly to any vegetable growing 
under it, the better method is to give it a square by 
itself. 

The Filbert {Corylus avellana). — This is the com- 
mon hazelnut improved by cultivation. Its princi- 
pal varieties are, the White, the Red, the Barcelona^ 
the Cosford, and the Long Cob, all of which are prop- 
agated alike by suckers, by layers, and by seeds. 
When the last of these modes is employed, sow the 
nuts in October or November, and keep the plants 
in the nursery till they are two years old ; after 
which, set them out, and manure and dress them 
occasionally. But the better method of propagating 
them is that by suckers^ These are taken up in 

* Hort. Trans., vol. i., p. 61. 



282 GARDENING. 

the fall or spring, and planted out in rows, at the 
distance of ten or twelve feet from each other, 
where tiiey undergo several sevi^r'e anti successive 
prunings, for the purpose "of hollowing out the 
head into the form of a punch-bowl, and of deter- 
mining the whole nourishment of the tree to the 
production of the fruit." Williamson is, however 
of opinion, that the severity of this discipline de- 
feats itself, and is, in fact, the reason why the plants 
give no fruit three years out of five. Instead, there- 
fore, of a rigid adherence to the Maidstone practice, 
he recommends " that the trees be left in a great 
degree to their natural growth and shape." 

In some parts of England, the filbert forms an ob- 
ject of very profitable culture, giving, per acre, on 
an average produce of five years, five hundred 
pounds' weight of nuts. 

The maturity of the fruit is indicated by the 
brown colour of the nut and the husk, and the readi- 
ness with which these separate. Braddick's method 
of preserving the fruit, by putting it up in airtight 
casks, is no doubt the best. The filbert is neither 
often nor seriously attacked by insects. The eggs 
of the curculio kukans are sometimes deposited in 
the germen, where, when matured, they subsist 
upon the kernel. The only cure for this is to de- 
stroy the nuts which are so attacked, and with them 
the larvae, before they attain the fly state. 



THE END. 



